Z{ .\ .` @@@ @@@@**"BNpW` .L K .p EN DB  .x< IZ)"College Entrance Examination Board2003M Hirt2000 Nicholson1998*p_;_@v` Sanders2003v Sanders2004X Sanders2004x Sanders2005 Sanders2005 Sawada1996O Sax2001Scaglion1995y Schaumburg2001z Scheckler2002z Schoenberg2001X Schofield1995 Schofield1998W Schofield2002{ Schott2000Schubert1986 Schumacher1992| Schumacher2001 Schweingruber2001Scollary1998r Scragg1998 SedighianN.D.Sedlacek1989} Selby1997 Selwyn1999{ Selwyn2000 Sensales1995 Seymour1997 Shade1994 Shapka2003 Shashaani1993 Shashaani1994 Shashaani1994  Shashaani1995 Shashaani1997 Shashaani2001 Shaw1999pY Shemla20010 Sherman2000R Shih1999I Siann1988 Siann1990 Siann1990Y Siann1995 Siann1997| Sieber2003s Silling1985Sinclair1995 Singh1993 Singh1998 Sissons1995+ Skinner1996 Skyllingstadn.d.PSlesnick1985 Slesnick1985 Smith1986 Smith1987 Smith1989r Smith1998 Smith2000 Smither1994L Snyder1986M Snyder2004 Soler1992 Solomou1996Solvberg2002Sorenson2003 Sparks2004 Spear1985T Spencer1999 Spertus1991 Spertus2000, Spertus2002/ Spertus2002 Spotts1997( Sproull1983 Sproull1985 Sproull1986 Spurgas20044Stafford2000 Stanley1997 Stanne19855 Starr2000 Steele1997c Steele1997(T Steele1999X Steffensmeier2000V Stein1993% Stepulevage2000 Stocks19977 Stone1983 Stone1986 Stone1992 Stone1996 Stuck1985 Stumpf1997( Sturm1994 Sturm1995 Sturm1995 Suddendorf1996-Sulaiman2002Sullivan2000Sullivan2001 Sumner2005 Sutton1989 Sutton1991(Swadener1986Swadener1987 Swain2002 Swoope1987M Tan2004c Tarlin1997 Taylor1991( Taylor1994( Taylor1994^ Taylor2003s Teague1992v Teague1993: Teague1996< Teague2002h Teh1995 Temple1989( Temple1990wTescione2002Tescione2003XTescione2004?Therrien1988 Thomas19900 Thomborson1995 Thomson1997Thurston1989Thurston1992 Tierney2001Tillberg2005 Tischhauser1992 Todman2000( Torkzadeh19990Townsend2002 Trauth1985,Trayhurn1995:Trayhurn2000+ Treu1996w Tsai2002Y Tucker1985 Turkle1984( Turner2002(> Turner20033 Twing1991 Underwood1990 Underwood1990 Underwood1994 UpitisN.D.W Uzzi1992) Vale2003w( Vale2004wY Valian1998 van Braak2004 Varnhagen2002 Vasil1987 Vegso2005> Venter20033 Vispoel1993 Vohs200505.VOICE: Vocational Options in Creating Equality1986 Volk1997Y Volman1990( Volman1997( Volman1997 Volman2001( Walker1996( Wallace1995 Wang1991 Ware1985Y Warren1987 Warren-Sams1997  Wasburn2005 Watkins-Malek1985 Watson1989 Watson1991 Weaver2003; Weil1995! Weinman1999 Weise1991 Welch1983 Welch1994 Welty1996 Werner2004 Werner2004N Werner2005aJ Werner2005 West20026! Whitley1996" Whitley1996  Whitley1997# Widmer1984> Wilder1984h$ Wilder1985Williams1985Williams1987Williams1987-88Williams1990?Williams1992@Williams1993 Wilson1985 Wilson1999 Wolf19909 Wolfe1985A Wolfe2005B;4Women and Minorities in Information Technology Forum1999(P'!Women in Technology International1997? Wood19881@Woodburn1993C Woodrow1994 Woodrow2000 Wright1997D Wu1989 Wu19909 Wyatt1996E Yang2001!F Yeloushan1989 Young1998G Young1999H Yuen2002!I Zimitat2004 Zubrow1986J Zuga1996!2002( Underwood1990 Underwood1994) Vale2003w( Vale2004wY Valian1998 van Braak2004 Vasil1987t Vasil1987 Vegso20055.VOICE: Vocational Options in Creating Equality1986 Volk1997Y Volman1990( Volman1997( Volman1997 Volman2001( Walker1996( Wallace1995 Ware1985Y Warren-Sams1997  Wasburn2005; Weil1995! Weinman1999 Welty1996 Werner2004 Werner2004N Werner2005a West20026! Whitley1996" Whitley1996  Whitley1997> Wilder1984h$ Wilder1985Williams1987-88?Williams1992@Williams1993 Wilson1999A Wolfe2005B;4Women and Minorities in Information Technology Forum1999(P'!Women in Technology International1997C Woodrow1994 Wright1997D Wu1989E Yang2001!F Yeloushan1989G Young1999H Yuen2002!I Zimitat2004J Zuga1996!U7Z>[Oa/8h;_Nb?S QH=1w"$]L%V!&'()*A4+,E02.5#6B39D<GCKJT\F`cdefgkjr^o RR hiobPacce z=sxvpxvlw`Œ¹yyq{0yq瀿 ˋyDyq Authors tJournals XKeywords=                                . P= Access AdultsleaAdvanced Placementng Age Aggression Applications Attitudes and expectationsect BarriersCareer factorsClassroom interactions Context Counselors Critical massCross-cultural Culturemu Curriculum"#Departmental changeDistance education Early workElementary/primaryg & Enrollments Experienced hExtracurricular programsGames Graphics InterventionsLanguage and terminologyLearning stylesxpMales MathematicsMedia Methodology Middle schoolMiddle school lea Outreachu Outside U.S.Parents and home PedagogyPeers and friendsPhysical safetyea Pipelinen PolicyPostsecondary/tertiary & Preschool ProgrammingRace, ethnicity, or SES S RecruitmentResearch review RetentionRole models and mentors& School programsSecondary/high schoolSingle-sex environments SoftwareStereotype threatStereotypes and biasSupport groupsd mTeacher educationTeachers and facultyTelecommunications Use patterns  Use patterns irlste for girlsWebsite for girlsirlste for girlsWebsite for girlsWebsite for girls  n x Aaa, Aaa Abbate, J. Abbate, Janet Abler, R.M. Abler, R.M. & Sedlacek, W.E. Acker, Sandra Acker, Sandra & Oatley, Keith Adam, A. Adam, AlisonAdam, R. Lander & A. Adler, M.Agosto, Denise E. Agruso, SusanAlexander, Kara Poe0Alfrey, MargaretpAman, James R.pAmbady, NalinipAmbrose, S. et al.Z04.America, Information Technology Association of|vAmerican Associatin of University Women Educational Foundation Commission on Technology, Gender, and Teacher Education"=883American Association for the Advancement of Science ,(American Association of University WomenD?American Association of University Women Educational FoundationN|wAmerican Association of University Women Educational Foundation Commission on Technology, Gender, and Teacher Education=8|xAmerican Association of University Women Educational Foundation Commission on Technology, Gender, and Teacher Education,8Ancheta, Rebecca Wepsic Anderson, AnnAnderson, Ronald E.0<8Anderson, Ronald E.; Welch, Wayne W.; & Harris, Linda J.$ Apple, Hank Bromley & Michael W. Apple, M.Apple, Michael W.Arbinger, Paul RolandArch, Elizabeth C.Z0,&Arch, Elizabeth C. & Cummins, David E.Arenz, Bernard W.($Arenz, Bernard W. & Lee, Millheon J.Armstrong, Patrick Ian Armstrong-Stassen, MarjorieHBArmstrong-Stassen, Marjorie; Landstrom, Margaret & Lumpkin, Ramona Arnez, B.W.Arnez, B.W. & Lee, M.J.Aronson, JoshuapAshley, Juaniap($Aspray, Joanne McGrath Cohoon & Bill0*Aspray, Joanne McGrath Cohoon & William C.^ Aspray, Williamp($Aspray, William & Cohoon, J. McGrathAspray, William C.Z0Astin, Alexander W.0 Atan, H.83Atan, H.; Sulaiman, F.; Rahman, Z.A.; & Idrus, R.M. Atan, HanafiLFAtan, Hanafi; Azli, Nazirah A.; Rahman, Zuraidah A. & Idrus, Rozman M."$Attewell, Paulp Attewell, Paul & Battle, Juan Avon, RachelAyersman, David J.Z0,&Ayersman, David J. & Reed, W. MichaelAzli, Nazirah A.pBadagliacco, Joanne M.Bakon, Cynthiap<6Bakon, Cynthia; Nielsen, Antonia; & McKenzie, JamiesonӠ Bana, SoheilaBannert, Mariap,&Bannert, Maria & Arbinger, Paul Roland,'Barbieri, Maria Silvia & Light, Paul H.Barker, Lecia J.p<6Barker, Lecia J.; Garvin-Doxas, Kathy; & Sieber, Diane| Barnes, PeterBaron, Lois J. Barrett, E.Barrett, E. & Lally, V.Barry, Sean M.p Battle, JuanBaumeister, Roy F.Z0XRBaumeister, Roy F.; Campbell, Jennifer D.; Kreuger, Joachim I. & Vohs, Kathleen D. Bean, StevenBeeson, Betty Spillers,)Beeson, Betty Spillers & Williams, R. AnnBellisimo, YolandaZ0Ben-Zeev, Taliap Bennett, D.Bennett, DorothypBennett, Peggy Clements Bennett, SueBenoit, Sallye S. et al.Berhnard, Judith K.0Bernhard, Judith K.0Bernstein, Danielle R.Bernt, Phyllis W. Berstein, D. Beynon, J.Beynon, J. & Mackay, H. Beynon, J. M. Beynon, J.M.Bhargava, Ambikap@:Bhargava, Ambika; Kirova-Petrovna, Anna; & McNair, Shannan"# Bibby, AlanBiernat, Monicap83Biernat, Monica; Manis, Melvin; & Nelson, Thomas E.E(#Biklen, Sari Knopp & Pollard, DianeBlacksheep, BaBapBlandford, Sonyap Bliss, Joan Blum, L. Blum, Lenore Blum, Lenore & Frieze, Carol Bluym, LenoreBoard, Collegep(#Board, College Entrance ExaminationBohonak, Noni McCullough Bolan, Sandra Bond, TrevorBordeaux, Barbara Borg, AnitaBorgo, Suzanne LavonBoudria, Theodore J.Bourque, Susan C.("Bourque, Susan C. & Warren, Kay B.Y  X iAACTE Policy PerspectivesACM SIGCSE Bulletin $Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica*,'Alberta Journal of Educational ResearchAmerican Psychologist American School Board Journal0*Annals of the New York Academy of SciencesZ0Arithmetic Teacher 0+Association for Learning Technology Journal0$Australian Journal of Education)(#Behavior and Information Technology($British Educational Research Journal,)British Journal of Educational Technology0*British Journal of Guidance and CounselingZ0,)British Journal of Sociology of Education Brown Online$Canadian Journal of Education*(%Canadian Journal of Higher Education@)c,D9j0ZZ>>[[[[ [>a/OOOO/;_NNNNN??NShZN[?C ;;;QQQH==H8>7www$$$""7Zh_b[?S_? w"7K7 !$$$]]L%%c&%%VVV!!&&== L&&&'''&'''((((()))))***AA+4444=+,+,aEE0002_2222=..F.([Q% 'V.5/.55#*555#5#66BBBBBB3Z//hh;;Nb118?ww]%&&)))A++,000.53w393339H99DDDDD<DDDDD9DGGGGGCKK0KJTJJJT? 6$aOO/8_]ZN??SQH"$LL%V!SH!!!''Z[aOS wLLNZ%_'()**AAA4444E5B3KTAL]\\\\\F\```cccddddeeeee8fffffffgcgggg"l2Fc'XForgasz, Helen 200382Girls, boys and computers for mathematics learning*$Mathematical Association of Victoria Victoria, Australia:3Mathematics Attitudes and expectations Outside U.S. |Questionnaires were given to about 2,600 students and about 100 teachers in grades 7-11 in Victoria (Australia) co-ed schools, and classroom observations and interviews were held with some students and teachers. Teachers believed that computer-competent students stood to gain most from computer use in mathematics learning, and they saw boys as more competent with the computer.,&Forsyth, Alfred S. Jr. Lancy, David F. 1989F?Girls and microcomputers: A hopeful finding regarding softwareComputers in the Schools6{ 3/4 51-59BAttitudes and expectations Outside U.S. Postsecondary/tertiary378 undergraduate students in Wales completed questionnaires about computer attitude and gender stereotypes about computers. No sex differences were found on computer attitudes, and only a small minority of students held gender-stereotyped views of computer use. The suspicion that the opposite sex was better at computer use and a less positive attitude towards computers was associated with greater computer anxiety for both females and males.>7Francis, Leslie J. Katz, Jaacov Julian Evans, Thomas E. 1996The relationship between personality and attitudes towards computers: An investigation among female undergraduate students in Israel*$British Educational Research Journal273164-170@9Attitudes and expectations Outside U.S. Teacher education298 female teacher education students were given computer attitude and personality tests. Introverts have a more positive attitude than extroverts (= sociable, likes to take chances). High psychoticism scorers (= cold, impersonal, hostile, lacking in sympathy, etc.) have a more positive attitude than low scorers. There was no relationship between neuroticism (= worrier) and attitude towards computers. "One of the major problems in interpreting the discrepant findings from previous research [about computer attitudes] concerns the variety of instruments employed to assess computer-related attitudes. .. [T]here is considerable variation within the constructs being measured."Freedman, Kerryp 1989^WMicrocomputers and the dynamics of image making and social life in three art classrooms4-Journal of Research on Computing in Education21290-298PJUse patterns Experience Graphics Elementary/primary Classroom interactionsRK5th grade (and high school) art classes were observed and interviewed about doing computer graphics. 0.5% of the 5th grade girls and 24.5% of the boys said they had taught themselves how to use a computer. In interviews, two reasons for the discrepancy emerged: boys initiated their own computer experiences and girls rarely did, and boys got more attention from adults in learning how to use computers. The girls focused more on interactions with each other than with the computer; for the boys it was the reverse. Girls seemed to be more interested in color and the relational elements of an image than boys, and less interested in movement. In mixed-sex groups, at first boys ignored girls and girls did not participate in activity or decisions. With time, girls began to participate by focusing on what boys first chose to focus on.o Freeman, Catherine E. 2004:4Trends in educational equity of girls & women: 2004  Washington DC LENational Center of Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education NCES 2005-016>8Pipeline Use patterns Experience Race, ethnicity, or SESElementary and secondary girls and boys were equally likely to use the computer at school and home in 2001, and racial/ethnic group did not make the results different. Computer use for both sexes rose since 1993, when they were also mostly equal by sex. (p. 38) &F@:Creamer, Elizabeth G. Burger, Carol J. Meszaros, Peggy S. 2004\UCharacteristics of high school and college women interested in information technology@:Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering101 67-78rkCareer factors Secondary/high school Postsecondary/tertiary Use patterns Adults Attitudes and expectationsXQContrary to prior research, findings from a questionnaire completed by 436 high school, college and community college students did not reveal significant differences by gender in amount of computer use of most types of computer applications. However, men were more interested in IT careers than women but were more likely than women to have negative stereotypes about IT workers. Women who were interested in computers had more positive attitudes toward IT workers than women less interested. A challenge is how to encourage young women who enjoy computers to think of them in career terms.*$Crombie, Gail Armstrong, Patrick Ian 1999nhEffects of classroom gender composition on adolescents' computer-related attitudes and future intentions0)Journal of Educational Computing Research204317-3272,Single-sex environment Secondary/high schoolAn 11th grade computer science class was taught in three sections (one all-female and two mixed-sex) by the same male teacher. Girls could choose their section. Girls in the all-female class reported greater perceived teacher support than either males or girls in the mixed-sex classes, and were similar to males in confidence, motivation, and future academic intentions. The two mixed-sex classes were 19:5 and 19:3 M/F.Crowley, Kevin 2000hbParent differences during museum visits: Gender differences in how children hear informal scienceVisitor Studies Today33 21-28LFParents and home Preschool Stereotypes and bias Classroom interactionsWhile not directly concerned with computing, intriguing nevertheless. In a study of family groups visiting science museums, it was found that both parents but especially fathers explained the science content of interactive science exhibits to sons three times more than to daughters, and this was true for children as young as 1 year old. In contrast, parents at interactive music exhibits were twice as likely to explain the exhibits to daughters than to sons. "A casual observer in the museum on a day we collected data would probably have noticed no differences in the ways that parents spoke to boys or girls. Parents brought their daughters to a museum, engaged interactive science exhibits with them, talked about what to do with exhibits, and talked about what to perceive from exhibits. It was only when we analyzed the videotaped records of these interactions that we detected that the crucial educational step of providing an explanatory context for the experience was primarly reserved for boys." (p. 23)`  Culley, L. 1986<5Gender differences and computing in secondary schools Longborough, UK PILongborough Department of Education, Longborough University of Technology& Could not obtain: not reviewed.Culley, Lorraine 1988 Girls, boys and computers Educational Studies141 3-8<5Teachers and faculty Stereotypes and bias ProgrammingF@Teachers regarded 11- and 12-year-old boys as more interested in computing and rewarding to teach than girls. Even when it was observed that girls did everything that was asked of them and presented good work, they were still seen by some teachers as having less of a flair for programming. (As cited in Sutton [1991]) :Ptb "Margolis, Jane Fisher, Allan 2000LFWomen in computer science: Closing the gender gap in higher education0*Draft Final Report to the Sloan Foundation|vPostsecondary learning & achievement Retention Enrollments Experience Attitudes and expectations Interventions CulturerlExperience pp. 6-7. Suggestions for interventions pp 7-8. Erosion of confidence preceeds loss of interest.0)Margolis, Jane Fisher, Allan Miller, Faye 2000HAThe anatomy of interest: Women in undergraduate computer science Women's Studies Quarterly"28 1/2104-127[piAttitudes and expectations Retention Stereotypes and bias Experience Role models and mentors Outside U.S.They "focus on the process by which students who enter with high enthusiasm and interest in computing quickly lose their faith in the ability and their interest in the subject." (p. 1) Women feel they know so much less than the men. The "nexus of confidence and interest." (p. 7) The pattern for international women is different, who enter with less experience and interest than American women but persist anyway. Faculty mentors are important to women.^Whttp://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~gendergap/papers/anatomyWSQ99.html, retrieved November 8, 20042"Margolis, Jane Fisher, Allan 20022,Unlocking the Clubhouse: Women in Computing  Cambridge, MA  MIT PressCulture Teacher education Attitudes and expectations Experience Middle school Secondary/high school Role models and mentors Departmental change Outside U.S.PLEBook explores dimensions of the computer gender gap in terms of families' computer-related behaviors; primary, secondary, and postsecondary classrooms; the male culture of computer science; influences on persisting vs. dropping out; the different responses of American vs. international women; and recommendations for change.e0)Margolis, Jane Fisher, Allan Miller, Faye n.d.HBFailure is not an option: International women in computer scienceD>Retention Experience Attitudes and expectations Cross-culturalInternational women have less prior computing experience and interest in computing than American women, but they persist more because of economic and pragmatic realities.60http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~gendergap/intwomen.html0)Margolis, Jane Fisher, Allan Miller, Faye n.d.JCComputing for a purpose: Gender and attachment to computer science6/Culture Programming Parents and home CurriculumB;Women "are more likely to place a high value on the context of computing, the links between computers and other fields, and the contribution to society that computers can make." (p. 1) Male students mentioned their fathers, not mothers, in early computing experiences, and enjoy programming to control the machine.RKhttp://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~gendergap/purpose.html, retrieved November 8, 200420)Margolis, Jane Fisher, Allan Miller, Faye n.d.|vLiving among the "programming gods": The nexus of confidence and interest for undergraduate women in computer science|vAttitudes and expectations Programming Retention Stereotypes and bias Stereotype threat Interventions Pedagogy Culture\UThe link between loss of confidence in one's computing ability and loss of interest in it as a field of study or career. Interventions included creating multiple entry-level courses and an overview course to help students see a more complete picture of the field, pedagogical changes, faculty mentors, and explicit attention to the culture.uJDhttp://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/confidence.html, retrieved December 10, 20040)Margolis, Jane Fisher, Allan Miller, Faye{ n.d.Geek mythologyF@Culture Attitudes and expectations Curriculum Pedagogy RetentionPIDiscusses the geeky culture of computing and how it doesn't suit females.TMhttp://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~gendergap/geekmyth.html, retrieved December 10, 20042 Mark, June 1992D>Beyond equal access: Gender equity in learning with computers>7Women's Educational Equity Act Publishing Center Digest JuneResearch reviewD>Brief review of research on factors of importance to teachers. Markoff, John 19892+Computing in America: A masculine mystiqueNew York Times New York1A February 13|CultureTMArticle and responding letters to the editor about the male computer culture. Martin, R. 1991zSchool children's attitudes towards computers as a function of gender, course subjects, and availability of home computers,%Journal of Computer Assisted Learning7187-1942+Attitudes and expectations Parents and home15-year-old students in England were surveyed. Males had more positive computer attitudes. Home ownership of a computer was correlated with boys' taking a computer-related class in school more strongly than it was for girls.WV[<5McNair, Shannan Korova-Petrova, Anna Bhargava, Ambika 2001\UComputers and young children in the classroom: Strategies for minimizing gender bias(!Early Childhood Education Journal291 51-55LEInterventions Role models and mentors Software Classroom interactionsAmong strategies recommended for minimizing gender bias in classroom computer use are role models, anti-bias teaching strategies, and bias-free software. McNees, Pat 2003NGNew Formulas for America's Workforce: Girls in Science and Engineering  Arlington, VA 4.National Science Foundation, pub. # NSF 03-207Interventions Middle school Secondary/high school Postsecondary/tertiary Teacher education Extracurricular programs School programsleDescribes over 250 projects on girls in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) funded by the National Science Foundation. Excellent index for identifying interventions. Pp. 101-113 list 16 projects on girls and IT carried out with funding from the Program for Gender Equity, for girls from middle school through college and for teachers.Melymuka, Kathleen 20010)If girls don't get IT, IT won't get girls ComputerWorld January 8*#Barriers Attitudes and expectationsGirls aren't interested in IT because corporate America and the technology community have been doing a lousy public relations job.pihttp://www.computerworld.com/careertopics/careers/story/0,10801,55910,00.html, retrieved October 11, 2004 MentorNet n.d. MentorNetWebsiteRole models and mentorsleElectronic mentoring program for young women in technology and the sciences, in operation since 1998.k<6http://www.mentornet.net, retrieved December 28, 2004Millard, Elaine 1997New technologies, old inequalities: Variations found in the use of computers by pupils at home with implications for the school curriculum.(British Educational Research Association University of York, UK>8Parents and home Attitudes and expectations Outside U.S.They surveyed Year 7 and Year 9 students in Northern England at schools with varying SES levels. 56% of boys but only 22% of girls said they had computers in their rooms at home; the imbalance was even greater in inner-city homes. Boys used computers much more than girls, mostly for games. Boys estimated their computer competence more highly than girls. Schools must recognize and counteract these imbalances.:3http://brs.leeds.ac.uk, retrieved December 27, 20042,Miller, Leslie Chaika, Melissa Groppe, Laura 1996JCGirls' preferences in software design: Insights from a focus group,&Interpersonal Computing and Technology42+ 27-36 AprilSoftware Career factorsCites a dissertation by Yasmin Kafi in which 4th grade students were asked to design a game to teach fractions by programming in LOGO; boys and girls chose different themes, rewards, and feedback for wrong answers. In the study in this paper, 30 girls from grades 6-12 discussed and explored software for 6 hours. Half had little to no experience with computers. Girls preferred to ask each other for help with software rather than using a manual. They placed a high value on the quality of the visual and audio design, preferred that software be collaborative rather than competitive and were interested in role-playing associated with careers.ZThttp://www.helsinki.fi/science/optek/1996/n2/miller.txt, retrieved December 10, 2004 p{ \y4.Durndell, Alan; Glissov, Peter; & Siann, Gerda0-Durndell, Alan; Siann, Gerda & Glissov, Peter,)Dyck, Jennifer L & Smither, Janan Al-AwarDyck, Jennifer L.Dyer, Susan K.p e-skills UK Eachus, PeterEastman, Caroline M.Eastman, Susan Tyler($Eastman, Susan Tyler & Krendl, KathyEccles, Jacquelynne0Eccles, Jacquelynne S.Eck, Edith vanp,)Education, California State Department ofEdwards, Carolp Edwards, P.N.Eisenberg, Rebecca L. Elen, JanElkjaer, Bentep ENWISEO$Equity, Center for EducationalTEstrella, RachelpEtzkowitz, HenrypHDEtzkowitz, Henry; Kemelgor, Carol; Neuschatz, Michael; & Uzzi, BrianEvans, Thomas E.pFeldman, AlegrapFerguson-Pabst, DonnaHEFerguson-Pabst, Donna, Persichitte, Kay; Lohr, Linda & Pearman, BetsyLFFerguson-Pabst, Donna, Persichitte, Kay; Lohr, Linda; & Pearman, Betsy"$Fernald, JulianpFerrari, Michelp Fetler, MarkFiore, Catherinep Fish, Marian40Fish, Marian; Gross, Alan; & Sanders, Jo Shuchat Fisher, Allan$Fisher, Allan & Margolis, JaneӣP0-Fisher, Allan; Margolis, Jane; & Miller, Faye Fisher, JulieFitzgerald, DonaldZ0Fitzpatrick, HelenZ0,&Fitzpatrick, Helen & Hardman, MargaretFleetwood, CynthiaZ0Fleming, John H.pFletcher-Flinn, Claire M.4.Fletcher-Flinn, Claire M. & Suddendorf, ThomasForgasz, HelenpForsyth, Alfred S. Jr.,(Forsyth, Alfred S. Jr. & Lancy, David F. Foster, T. Foundation, AAUW EducationalD@Foundation, American Association of University Women EducationalN Foundation, National ScienceFox, Mary Frankp$Fox, Sue V. Rosser & Mary FrankFrancioni, JoanpFrancioni, Joan M.Z0Francis, Leslie J.Z0@:Francis, Leslie J.; Katz, Jaacov Julian & Evans, Thomas E."#Fraser, Barry J.pFreedman, KerrypFreeman, Catherine E. Frieze, Carol Frieze, Carol & Blum, LenoreFurger, RobertapGabbert, Paulap$!Gabbert, Paula & Meeker, Paige H.Gale, Matthew T.pGalpin, VashtipD@Galpin, Vashti; Sanders, Ian; Turner, Heather& Venter, BernadineN Gardner, J.R.,'Gardner, J.R.; McEwen, A. & Curry, C.A.Garver, Jo AnnpGarvin-Doxas, Kathy0@;Gary Brinkley, Mary Ellen O'Shaugnessey, and Richard Wilson# Gaskell, J. Gaskell, J. & McLaren., A.$Gaskell, Jane & Willinsky, John3Gaston, Barbarap Gatta, MaryGelpi, Adriennep Gerver, E.Gifford, JamespGilbert, Lucia Albino@;Gilbert, Lucia Albino; Bravo, Melinda J. & Kearney, Lisa K.# Girl Scouts$!Girl Scouts Hornets' Nest Council Girlstart Glass, C.R. Glass, C.R. & Knight, L.A. Glissov, P.Glissov, P. et al.Z0Glissov, Peterp Goode, Joanna40Goode, Joanna; Estrella, Rachel & Margolis, JaneGoodfellow, KrispGordon, Clairep Gordon, M.Grant, W. Vancep(#Grant, W. Vance & Snyder, Thomas D. Graves, D.Graves, D. & Klawe, M. Greber, Lisa Green, NancyGreenfield, Patricia M.Greenhough, PampGressard, Clarice P.,&Gressard, Clarice P. & Loyd, Brenda H.Griffiths, Morwenna0,&Griffiths, Morwenna & Alfrey, Margaret Groppe, Laura Gross, AlanGroundwater-Smith, S.($Groundwater-Smith, S. & Crawford, K.Grundy, FrancespGulardo, SoniapGunn, C. et al.p@=Gunn, C.; French, S.; McLeod, H.; McSporran, Ml. & Conole, G. Gunn, Cathy Gupta, Uma G.$Gupta, Uma G. & Houtz, Lynne E.DM$ Smith, L. 198960Have we closed the gaps in student computer use?The Computing Teacher17 37-39 & Could not obtain: not reviewed.Smith, Lola B. 2000jdThe socialization of females with regard to a technology-related career: recommendations for change>8Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal3S2ERIC ED 450 213^XCareer factors Curriculum Role models and mentors Peers and friends Interventions Adults12 women who took technological career paths were asked via interviews, observations and document analysis about influences on their career choice. They mentioned role models, encouragement ("scaffolding"), collaborative assignments, reality-based assignments, and encouragement from father, male peers and male siblings. Recommended interventions include encouraging girls to ask questions and take risks and increasing play activities in technology environments. >8Snyder, Thomas D. Tan, Alexandra G. Hoffman, Charlene M. 2004*#Digest of Education Statistics 2003  Washington DC D=U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences&Use patterns TelecommunicationsStudent computer use in the U.S. is now mostly equal. Internet: equal until college, when females use it more. (Table 426) Home computer use: essentially equal. (Table 429) School computer use: Essentially equal until college, when males use it more: financial reasons? (Table 429) Home computer use for schoolwork: slightly more females. (Table 429). However, high school computer courses taken: essentially equal until 1994, now (= 2001) the most unequal it has been since data were collected on this in 1982, with boys taking an average of 0.93 Carnegie Units and girls, 0.74. (Table 137) Degrees in CS earned by women 2001: Associates, 40.5%, Table 263 Bachelors, 27.6%, Table 264 Masters, 33.9%, Table 269 Ph.D., 22.8%, Table 271 Solomou, K. 1996HBNursery school children and computers: Gender-related differences Sheffield, U.K. University of Sheffield-Unpublished dissertation@:Parents and home Elementary/primary Preschool Outside U.S.Parents in England were studied who visited their children's nursery schools. Both mothers and fathers were more likely to ask questions about their sons' use of computers than their daughters'. This source was cited in Opie, Clive (1998). "Whose turn next? Gender issues in information technology" in Gender in the Secondary Curriculum: Balancing the Books (Ann Clark & Elaine Millard, eds.). London: Routledge, p. 83.0*Werner, Linda L. Denner, Jill Bean, Steven 2004:3Pair programming strategies for middle school girlsx4.Computers and Advanced Technology in Education  Kauai, HawaiitmInterventions Extracurricular programs Programming Single-sex environment Programming Role models and mentorsMiddle-school girls learned Flash programming working in pairs in an after-school and a summer program. To train girls in working in pairs, they used role modeling of effective and ineffective pair programming by having the teachers perform good and bad scripts, having girls identify pair programming rules, and publicly recognizing effective pair programmers of the week. Scripts and rules are included. No outcome measures.rter interest and course enrollment in college(!Sex Roles: A Journal of Research16 5/6303-311>7Attitudes and expectations Programming Parents and home`LEUndergraduates completed a questionnaire about their computer self-efficacy (= "the belief that one can successfully execute a certain course of behavior" p. 304). Men rated themselves higher. The main predictor of computer self-efficacy for women was having taken programming in high school, as well as computer ownership. g-f~lZXj <6Bhargava, Ambika Kirova-Petrovna, Anna McNair, Shannan 19990*Computers, gender bias, and young children4-Information Technology in Childhood Education263-274s6/Pedagogy Parents and home Software Use patternsDifference in computer use can be attributed to gender-biased classroom practices, lack of female role models, computer gender gap in homes, and the scarcity of bias-free software.<6Bhargava, Ambika Kirova-Petrovna, Anna McNair, Shannan 2002JDGender bias in computer software programs: A checklist for teachers:4Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual 20021205-218$Software Teachers and facultyGender bias exists in software in terms of characters (most are male and both sexes are presented in stereotypic roles), content (reflects male interests with a focus on adventure and sports, aggression and violence; complicated software frustrates inexperienced users, primarily girls), and reward systems (correct answers get male-oriented responses). A checklist is presented for teachers to use for evaluating educational software for gender bias.6/Biernat, Monica Manis, Melvin Nelson, Thomas E. 1991,%Stereotypes and standards of judgment2,Journal of Personality and Social Psychology604485-4992+Stereotypes and bias Postsecondary/tertiary"College students were shown pictures of males and females and asked to rate them for height, weight, financial success, and age, either objectively (with numbers) or subjectively (as compared to an "average adult"). Objective judgments turned out to be much more gender stereotyped.p Blum, Lenore 2001@9Women in computer science: The Carnegie Mellon experienceB;The Future of the University: The University of the FutureHAPostsecondary/tertiary Curriculum Culture Outreach Support groupspjSuccess story at Carnegie Mellon University: Women@SCS Advisory Council, culture changes, experience gap. Blum, Lenore 2001>8Transforming the culture of computing at Carnegie MellonComputing Research News135 2-9PJPostsecondary/tertiary Interventions Critical mass Barriers Support groupsvpDescription of what they did at Carnegie Mellon University to raise female enrollment from 7% to 37%, 1995-2001. Blum, Lenore 2002ngBuilding an effective computer science student organization: The Carnegie Mellon women@SCS action planSIGCSE Bulletin342 74-78& Could not obtain: not reviewed. Blum, Lenore 2004@:Women in computer science: The Carnegie Mellon experience "Daniel P. Resnick Dana Scott The Innovative University  Pittsburgh Carnegie Mellon Press& Could not obtain: not reviewed. Blum, Lenore Frieze, Carol 2005F@The evolving culture of computing: Similarity is the difference,&Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies261F@Curriculum Culture Programming Postsecondary/tertiary Experience"Recommendations for curricular changes based on presumed gender differences can be misguided and may help reinforce, even perpetuate, stereotypes." As the environment becomes more equalized by sex, breadth of interests, and professional experiences, the culture changes in ways that are positive for women and men. They claim very different conclusions from those of Jane and Allan in interviews with the last class of CS women to enter CMU as a distinct minority (class of 2002), who were affected by the larger number of women in succeeding years: "a class in transition." Unlike what Jane and Allan found, there was less geekiness, students were more well-rounded, and there were more similarities between males and females.Bohonak, Noni McCullough 1995NGAttracting and retaining women in graduate programs in computer science Rosser, Sue V.b\Teaching the Majority: Breaking the Gender Barrier in Science, Mathematics, and Engineering New York Teachers College Press169-180ngPostsecondary/tertiary Outreach Retention Pipeline Culture Stereotypes and bias Race, ethnicity, or SES{jcFew graduate programs have support mechanisms for female students for outreach or retention. Foreign students and faculty often come from cultures that discount women. CS departments use freshman courses for filtering out students. Minority women have cultural and financial problems. There is a need for well-funded programs for women and minorities.e Bolan, Sandra 2002$Girls learn IT bits and bytes[Computing Canada18March 28Role models and mentorsD=Event for girls in IT featured a woman in IT as a role model. Borg, Anita 199982What draws women to and keeps women in computing?0*Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences New York "New York Academy of Sciences& Could not obtain: not reviewed.68785 .'Campbell, Patricia B. Russell, Susan Jo 19844-Microcomputers and women's educational equityh Hands On!n7x1 16-21TLEBarriers Software Use patterns Access Culture Race, ethnicity, or SES~$Keywords say it all: overview*$Campbell, Patricia B. Gulardo, Sonia 19844-Computers in education: A question of accessComputers in the Schools11 57-65.'Access Barriers Race, ethnicity, or SESzf_Access issues for girls and children of color. Includes recommended introductory lesson plans.Campbell, Patricia B. 19846/The computer revolution: Guess who's left out?H.'Interracial Books for Children Bulletin153 3-6Bhvan Braak, Johan P. 2004ZSDomains and determinants of university students' self-perceived computer competence Computers and Education433299-312D=Methodology Attitudes and expectations Postsecondary/tertiarysAn instrument on self-perceived computer competence was developed. Univariate gender differences in computer competence seem to disappear when controlled for computer confidence: girls felt less confidence than boys.0*Vasil, Latika; Hesketh, Beryl & Podd, John 1987JDSex differences in computing behaviour among secondary school pupils0*New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies222201-214{`YAttitudes and expectations Experience Parents and home Outside U.S. Secondary/high school4.Secondary students in New Zealand were surveyed. There were no sex differences in intention to enroll in a computer course, but there were strong sex differences favoring boys in access to computers, access to home computers, frequency of use, past computer experience, and self-efficacy expectations. Vegso, Jay 2005>7Interest in CS as a major drops among incoming freshmenComputing Research News173Pipeline<5With data from the Higher Education Research Institute at the University of California at Los Angeles, article shows alarming drop in freshmen's interest in computer majors, especially among women, whose interest "has fallen to levels unseen since the early 1970s." Great charts from 1960s and 1970s to 2004.LEhttp://www.cra.org/CRN/articles/may05/vegso, retrieved April 25, 2005 6/VOICE: Vocational Options in Creating Equality, 19862+Computer equity: Access is not the problem Albany BUse patterns Parents and home Elementary/primary Middle school259 4th through 8th graders were surveyed. Use: for 80% of the sample use levels were similar by sex, but about 20% of the boys reported heavy computer use. More boys (50%) than girls (35%) owned home computers; again boys were the heaviest users. Both boys and girls preferred games and content software. Most of the gender difference is due to a small percentage of boys who use the computer much more than girls and most boys.& Swadener, Marc Hannafin, Michael 1987nhGender similarities and differences in sixth graders' attitudes towards computers: An exploratory studyEducational Technology 37-42January@9Attitudes and expectations Mathematics Elementary/primaryStudy was to see if there were differences in 6th graders with high and low math achievement and their attitude toward computers. All groups felt that there was no sex difference in the likelihood of success with computers.*#Swain, Sandra L. Harvey, Douglas M. 2002<6Single-sex computer classes: An effective alternative Tech Trends466  17-20tmSingle-sex environment Research review Access Interventions Attitudes and expectations Classroom interactionsShort review of the research on how single-sex technology classrooms might help with gender problems: accessibility, attitudinal differences, achievement, and classroom learning environment. Although single-sex classrooms "do not mirror the real world females must contend with once outside the classroom, they are, however, effective interim interventions to enable females to lessen the current technology gap." (p. 19) Tarlin, Ellen 1997<6Computers in the classrooms: Where are all the girls? Harvard Educational Review Focus series3$Could not obtain: no review.,%Taylor, Harriet G. Mounfield, Luegina 1991leAn analysis of success factors in college computer science: High school methodology is a key element4-Journal of Research on Computing in Education242240-245PISecondary/high school Postsecondary/tertiary Programming Parents and homeqHigh school experience with programming was the major component of high school computer experience that contributed the most to success in IT in college. Programming courses were especially helpful, as opposed to learning programming on one's own in an undisciplined fashion. Higher grades in programming class were predictive of college success. Knowing applications only without programming was not an indicator of college computer science success. Home computer ownership had a very small positive effect on college CS success.,%Taylor, Harriet G. Mounfield, Luegina( 1994ztExploration of the relationship between prior computing experience and gender on success in college computer science0)Journal of Educational Computing Research114291-306+PIProgramming Parents and home Secondary/high school Postsecondary/tertiaryIn a study of 656 college students, males' college CS success was correlated with owning a computer and having taken high school programming courses. For females, however, having taken high school programming course, having their own computer, and having had any prior computing experience correlated with college CS success. High school CS courses were almost four times more predictive of female success in college than male success.s Teague, Joy 1992`ZRaising the self-confidence and self-esteem of final-year students prior to job interviewsSIGSCE Bulletin241 67-71& Could not obtain: not reviewed. Teague, Joy 2002JCWomen in computing: What brings them to it, what keeps them in it?SIGCSE Bulletin342147-158$Career factors Research reviewIn a study of 15 women working in computing, it was found that they enjoy the work they are doing, and that dislikes were more likely to be associated with people and politics. The paper reviews the literature on female career choice in computing.s felt that computers were more appropriate for boys, and boys reported more parental encouragement. Students' perception of their parents' beliefs and encouragement affected their own interest, confidence, and stereotyped views of computers. Fathers' and mothers' male/computer belief encouraged boys and discouraged girls, and also promoted their childrens' stereotypes about computer users. 67% of the boys reported parental encouragement to take computing, while only 22% of the girls reported it. Students whose parents encouraged them "to take computer courses were more interested in computing, had less stereotypical views about computer users, and had more confidence in working with computers." (p. 441) SES had more influence on females than males. Higher SES mothers had daughters with less gender-stereotyped views about computing and more positive computer attitudes. However, "parental attitudes and encouragement substantially overshadowed the effect of SES on children's computer attitudes." (p. 447) U@Yd(#Nelson, Carol S. & Watson, J. AllenNelson, Lori J.p0-Nelson, Lori J; Weise, Gina M. & Cooper, JoelNelson, Lori, J.p$Nelson, Lori, J. & Cooper, JoelNelson, Sarah CottonNelson, Thomas E. Neuman, DeliaNeuschatz, MichaelZ0 Ng, M.ONicholson, Juliep83Nicholson, Julie; Gelpi, Adrienne; & Young, ShannonhNickell, G.S. et al.Nielsen, Antoniap85Nolan, Patric C.J.; McKinnon, David H. & Soler, JanetNolan, Patrick C.J.0<6Nolan, Patrick C.J.; McKinnon, David H. & Soler, Janet North, A.S.North, A.S. & Noyes, J.M. Noyes, J.M. Nyhus, C. O'Neil, KimO'Shaugnessey, Mary Ellen Oatley, KeithOberman, Paul S.p,'Officers, Council of Chief State SchoolOgletree, Shirley M.,'Ogletree, Shirley M. & Williams, Sue W.Ogletree, Shirley MatileOkebukola, Peter A.0 Olinsky, A. Ollila, Lloyd Olzak, SusanOnwuegbuzie, Anthony J. Opie, CliveOriogun, Peterp Ormrod, S. Ory, John C.83Ory, John C.; Bullock, Cheryl; & Burnaska, KristineXT OsajimaOOsajima, Aprilp Owen, S.V.Palmer, CarolynpPalonen, Tuirep Parisi, Lynn Parker, Janet$!Parker, Janet & Widmer, Constance Passig, David Passig, David & Levin, Haya Pearl, Amy\YPearl, Amy; Pollack, Martha E.; Riskin, Eve; Thomas, Beckly; Wolf, Elizabeth; & Wu, AlicePearman, Betsyp Pecora, NormaPedretti, Erminia Pelgrum, W.J. Perl, Teri Perry, Ruth Perry, Ruth & Greber, LisaPersichitte, KaypPflughoeft, KurtpPhillips, Perry D.Z0 Phye, Gary D.Pittinsky, Todd L.Z0Plamondin, Kathy KiddPlamondon, Kathy Kidd Plomp, TjeerdPlumeridge, SarahPollack, Martha E.Z0Pope-Davis, Donald B.(%Pope-Davis, Donald B. & Twing, Jon S.0*Pope-Davis, Donald B. & Vispoel, Walter P.^ Pozzi, Stefano et al.$!Project on Equal Education Rights Proost, Karin,)Proost, Karin; Elen, Jan; & Joost, Lowyck Pryor, Debra Pryor, J. Pryor, John Qu, NancyQuinn, Diane M.p R., Wright. Raffeld, Paul Rahman, Z.A.Rahman, Zuraidah A.0Reece, Carol Carter0Reed, W. MichaelpReinen, Ingeborg Janssen,(Reinen, Ingeborg Janssen & Plomp, TjeerdRennie, Leonie J.Renninger, K. Ann("Renninger, K. Ann & Shumar, WesleyYResnick, Daniel P.Z0 Rhem, James Rice, MarionRichards, P. ScottZ0<9Richards, P. Scott; Johnson, David W. & Johnson, Roger T. Rifkin, Adam Ring, Geoff Riskin, EveRoberts, Eric S.p85Roberts, Eric S.; Kassianidou, Marina; & Irani, LillyRobinson-Staveley, Kris,&Robinson-Staveley, Kris & Cooper, Joel Robst, John(%Robst, John; Russo, Dean & Keil, Jack$Roger, Angela & Duffield, JillU Roger, Susan Rosen, L.D.Rosenthal, Nina Ribak40Rosenthal, Nina Ribak & Demetrulias, Diana MayerRosenwasser, S.p Ross, SusanRosser, Sue V.pRothstein, EdwardRoy, Margueritep84Roy, Marguerite; Taylor, Roger & Chi, Michelene T.H. Rubin, Andee<9Rubin, Andee; Murray, Megan; O'Neil, Kim & Ashley, Juania Rubin, Nicola Yelland & AndeeRussell, Susan Jo Russo, DeanRusso, Nancy Felipe0\YRusso, Nancy Felipe; Chan, Connie; Kenkel, Mary Beth; Travis, Cheryl B.; & Vasquez, MelbaRust, William J.p Ryan, C.Sackrowitz, MarianZ0Sacks, Colin H.p<8Sacks, Colin H.; Bellisimo, Yolanda & Mergendoller, JohnSales, Gregory C.Salgado, Raquel Scherr Saljo, Roger84Sally Wyatt, Flis Henwood, Nod Miller & Peter Senker@Salvendy, Gavriel Sanders, Ian Sanders, Jl Sanders, Jo(#Sanders, Jo & Campbell, Patricia B.$Sanders, Jo & Lubetkin, Rebecca Sanders, Jo & McGinnis, Mary("Sanders, Jo & Nelson, Sarah CottonY Sanders, Jo & Tescione, Susan$ Sanders, Jo & Tescione, Susan T.LSanders, Jo Shuchat0($Sanders, Jo Shuchat & Stone, AntoniaSawada, Toshiop Sax, Linda J.PKSax, Linda J.; Astin, Alexander W.; Korn, William S.; & Mahoney, Kathryn M. Solvberg, Astrid M. 2002RLGender differences in computer-related control beliefs and home computer use2,Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research464409-4260<5Attitudes and expectations Middle school Outside U.S. In a study of Norwegian 8th graders, a group of students who did not use computers in school was found to show higher male confidence and perceived control of the computer. Another group that did use computers in school showed no gender differences. (Abstract only) Sorenson, Knut et al.  2003<6Case studies of public efforts to include women in ICT & Information Society Technologies38<6IST-2000-26329 SIGIS, Deliverable Number D03, Volume 1f`Cross-cultural Interventions Single-sex environment Adults Role models and mentors Outside U.S. The report deals with 15 initiatives on gender and technology in Norway, the Netherlands, Scotland, Italy, and Ireland. "One major provisional finding is, on the basis of cases in training and education, that successful inclusion is based on projects that combine a measure of different strategies. That is, recruitment, teaching methods, role models, social support, practical assistance and financing are important factors that should be combined." (p. 15-16) In some projects, single-sex courses were successful, but in others the women "do not want 'self-consciousness training.'" (p. 16) In one Norway project, interviews with teachers found that many teachers resented the government's emphasis on gender equity and felt that such an emphasis was old-fashioned and no longer necessary; in schools that did not emphasize gender equity girls were included anyway. In a second Norway project at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, female enrollment in ICT dropped from 20% in the mid-80s to 6% in the mid-90s; the Women in Computing Initiative gave women info about the major, convinced able women to apply, set quotas for women, reformed the curriculum, improved the quality of teaching, and improved the social environment. They felt there was no single intervention that produced the successful result, but rather the combination. In a Dutch project that targeted training for adult women returning to the job market, they emphasized flexibility in educational routes and entry points, attention to women's personal situations, and emphasis on labor market realities. In a single-sex project in Scotland for disadvantaged unemployed women, the women attended school 3 days a week with 1/2 day on personal development and communication with the rest on IT; tuition, travel, and childcare were free. The majority of the graduates found employment or continued in higher education. In another Scots project that worked with teachers, teachers showed little awareness that there may be gender differences in ICT use and confidence among children they teach. In Ireland, one project focused on providing role models for girls. In Italy all projects were focused on adult women.  b h [ ` _ g 0 7 u z Spear, Margaret Goddard 19856/Teachers' attitdes towards girls and technology @:Judith Whyte Rosemary Deem Lesley Kant Maureen CruickshankGirl-Friendly Schooling London Methuen 36-44XQTeachers and faculty Attitudes and expectations Outside U.S. Stereotypes and bias215 teachers in southern England. including a large group of science teachers, indicated they believed that technology education was more important for boys than girls.tention to these issues in pre-service teacher education. Sanders, Jo 1998$The molehill and the mountain^<6TIES: The Magazine of Design and Technology Education1 September MediaAnalyzes several previous issues of this magazine for how it portrayed men and women, and found that men were about 75% of those pictured and mentioned. Sanders, Jo 2000D>Women in science and technology, and the role of public policy<5Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management SeattleTeacher educationThe essence of various projects is that educators, particularly policy makers, must decide if they believe gender equity in computing and other areas has a legitimate place in the pre-service teacher education curriculum. If so, then it follows that gender equity must be systemic, that education professors be helped in being brought up to speed, and that gender equity in computing must be on the agenda of the teacher education profession. -{@ June 5, 1988 Jussim, Lee($Jussim, Lee & Eccles, Jacquelynne S.Kadijevich, Djordje0Kafai, Yasmin B.p Kant, LesleyKanter, Rosabeth Moss,'Kanter, Rosabeth Moss & Stein, Barry A. Kass, HeidiKassianidou, Marina0Katz, Jaacov Julian0 Kay, Robin Kay, Robin H.Kearney, Lisa K.p Keil, JackKekelis, LindapKekelis, Linda S.<9Kekelis, Linda S.; Ancheta, Rebecca Wepsic; & Heber, EttaPKKekelis, Linda S.; Ancheta, Rebecca Wepsic; Heber, Etta; & Countryman, Jeri Keller, Gill Kirkup & L.S.Keller, Johannesp Keller, L.S.Kemelgor, CarolpKenkel, Mary BethKeough, TeresapDAKeough, Teresa; Barnes, Peter; Joiner, Richard & Littleton, KarenKersteen, Zoe A.pHEKersteen, Zoe A.; Linn, Marcia C.; Clancy, Michael; & Hardyck, CurtisKhalili, AshmadpKieren, ThomaspKiesler, S. et al.Z0 Kiesler, Sara85Kiesler, Sara; Sproull, Lee; & Eccles, Jacquelynne S.Kimbrough, Doris R.0 King, John0,King, John; Bond, Trevor; & Blandford, Sonya  King, Lisa K. Kirk, David Kirkman, C.Kirkpatrick, Heather(#Kirkpatrick, Heather & Cuban, Larry Kirkup, G. Kirkup, Gill Kirkup, Gill & Keller, L.S.Kirova-Petrovna, Anna Klawe, M. Klawe, Maria Klawe, Maria & Leveson, Nancy Klein, Renate$Klein, Susan Hawthorne & RenateT Knight, L.A. Knox, A.Knupfer, Nancy Nelson<7Knupfer, Nancy Nelson; Kramer, Kevin M.; & Pryor, Debrap@;Knupfer, Nancy Nelson; Rust, William J.; & Mahoney, Judy E.# Koch, MelissaKolehmainedn, P.pKoohang, Alex A.p$!Koohang, Alex A. & Byrd, David M.Korenman, Joanp Korenman, Joan & Wyatt, NancyKorn, William S.pKorova-Petrova, AnnaKramer, Kevin M.pKramer, Pamela E.("Kramer, Pamela E. & Lehman, SheilaYKraut, Robert et al. Krendl, KathyKrendl, Kathy A.p<7Krendl, Kathy A; Broihier, Mary C. & Fleetwood, CynthiaKreuger, Joachim I.0Krey, Cynthia L.pKwan, Steven K.p@:Kwan, Steven K.; Trauth, Eileen M. & Driehaus, Kathleen C."#4/L. Bragg, C. Campbell, G. Herbert, & J. MousleyLage, ElisabethpLaithwaite, Heather0Lakoff, Robin Tolmach4.Lakoff, Robin Tolmach & Salgado, Raquel Scherr Lally, V.Lancy, David F.p Land, M.J. Lander, R.Landstrom, Margaret0Lanius, Cynthiap Larson, M.Latvika, V. et al.Z0 Lawry, JoanLeathwood, CaroleLeBold, William K.Z0Leder, Gilah C.p Lee, A.C.K. Lee, Kar-Tin Lee, M.J.Lee, Millheon J.p Lee, Miwha Lee, WanbilLehman, SheilapLenzmeier, StefneLeong, Siew Cheep($Leong, Siew Chee & Hawamdeh, SulimanLepper, Mark R.p Leroux, SteveLeung, Lydia Kam-ha0Leveson, NancypLeveson, Nancy G.Levin, Barbara B.("Levin, Barbara B. & Barry, Sean M.Y Levin, Haya Levin, Tamar Levin, Tamar & Gordon, Claire Levine, Tamar,'Levine, Tamar & Donitsa-Schmidt, Smadar Lewis, LindaLiao, Yuen-kuang CliffLiau, Yuen-kuang Cliff Light, Paul Lightbody, P. Lim, G.OLim, G. & Wang, M.Z0 Lindia, S.Lindia, S. & Owen, S.V. Linn, EleanorLinn, Marcia C.p Lintern, SueLips, Hilary M.p$Lips, Hilary M. & Temple, LindaLittleton, K. et al.Littleton, Karenp$!Littleton, Karen & Bannert, Maria$ Littleton, Karen & Hoyles, Celia(Littleton, Karen et al.TNLittleton, Karen; Light, Paul; Joiner, Richard; Messer, David; & Barnes, Peter Liu, Min40Liu, Min; Reed, W. Michael; & Phillips, Perry D.Lockheed, Marlaine E.@:Lockheed, Marlaine E.; Nielsen, Antonia; & Stone, Meredith"# Lohr, Linda Lovegrove, G.Lovegrove, GillianZ0$ Lovegrove, Gillian & Hall, WendyH Loyd, B.H.Loyd, B.H. & Loyd, D.E.Loyd, Brenda H.p<8Loyd, Brenda H.; Loyd, Douglas E. & Gressard, Clarice P. Loyd, D.E.A ? Gunn, C. et al. 20022,Gender issues in computer-supported learning2+Association for Learning Technology Journal101 32-44& Could not obtain: not reviewed. Gunn, Cathy 2003JDDominant or different? Gender issues in computer supported learning0)Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks71 14-30;Parents and home Attitudes and expectations Telecommunications Use patterns Access Context Distance education Outside U.S. Postsecondary/tertiaryvpA questionnaire was given to entering students at the University of Edinburgh over 10 years. Women were less likely to own their own computers. Women's confidence in their ability to use email and the Web increased more rapidly than men's but was still lower. Over the decade, sex differences in expectations of computer use have completely disappeared. In a study at an English university of an online course with some in-person lectures, it was found that women had much more of a problem with access than males: they were far less likely to have ready access to a home computer because of lower priority in sharing it with others. Females were more likely to express apprehension about the online aspect. They were likelier to work later in the evening than males, fitting study time around family obligations. Final grades were about equal. In a New Zealand university, students taking a web design course could choose a classroom or an online mode. Women performed better than men in the online mode, perhaps because of stronger motivation to succeed and greater ability to work independently and manage multi-tasking lives.^Xhttp://www.aln.org/publications/jaln/v7n1/pdf/v7n1_gunn.pdf, retrieved December 26, 2004$Gupta, Uma G. Houtz, Lynne E. 2000XRHigh school students' perceptions of information and technology skills and careers(!Journal of Industrial Technology164 2-860Attitudes and expectations Secondary/high schoolIn a survey of public, parochial, and private high school students in Nebraska, it was found that girls' interest in IT courses and careers was significantly lower than that of boys.PIhttp://nait.org/jit/Articles/gupta090100.pdf, retrieved December 26, 20040 Gurer, Denise 1995*$Pioneering women in computer science Communications of the ACMx381 45-54& Could not obtain: not reviewed.n 06/Nicholson, Julie Gelpi, Adrienne Young, Shannon  1998tnInfluences of gender and open-ended software on first graders' collaborative composing activities on computers2+Journal of Computing in Childhood Education91 3-42F@Single-sex environment Classroom interactions Elementary/primaryFirst graders were observed composing stories on the computer. Girls working in mixed-sex groups were more likely to have their competence or work laughed at or criticized than in single-sex groups. Males more often interrupted females' concentration and composing efforts than the reverse. When girls worked in single-sex groups they found ways to incorporate all collaborators' ideas into stories, while boys tended to be competitive by comparing stories.Nickell, G.S. et al. 1987JDGender and sex role preferences in computer attitudes and experience,&Southwestern Psychological Association  New Orleans& Could not obtain: not reviewed.:3Nolan, Patrick C.J. McKinnon, David H. Soler, Janet 1992B;Computers in education: Achieving equitable access and use4-Journal of Research on Computing in Education243199-314LFAccess Use patterns Experience Attitudes and expectations Outside U.S. In a survey of New Zealand secondary school students, it was found that boys used home computers more than girls but school computers equally. There was no gender difference in attitudes toward computers or in the use of games and most applications, as compared to a similar survey several years earlier. The research indicates "a further reduction of inequalities related to computer access at school to the point where there are no real differences across ability, gender, and socioeconomic divisions." (p. 310)North, A.S. Noyes, J.M. 2002HAGender influences on children's computer attitudes and cognitions"Computers in Human Behavior+182135-150LEAttitudes and expectations Experience Outside U.S. Elementary/primaryThe article considers "technophobia." Researchers gave a questionnaire and the Bem Sex-Role Inventory to about 100 11- and 12-year-old children in England. The extent of technophobia was found to be unrelated to either a student's sex or their sex-role profile (e.g. highly feminine girls). Less than a quarter of the children showed any level of technophobia. Males did have more computer experience than girls.Oberman, Paul S. 2000b\Academic help seeking and peer interactions of high school girls in computer science classes0)American Educational Research Associationa  New OrleansERIC ED 443 405GJCSingle-sex environment Classroom interactions Secondary/high schoolvHBFive girls at a Catholic high school and 20 girls at a public high school (in both schools a minority), were observed for help-seeking behavior in computer class. Both computer teachers were male, 31, and married. Girls often asked the person nearest them for help, and often asked peers even when they preferred help from the teacher and considered him more knowledgeable because they perceived him as somewhat unavailable. Most girls preferred to work individually, not with others in either single-sex or mixed-sex groups, even when there was substantial peer interaction. *RZR60Shih, Margaret Pittinsky, Todd L. Ambady, Nalini 1999ZTStereotype susceptibility: Identity saleince and shifts in quantitative performance$Psychology of Women Quarterly101 80-83Stereotype threat In an experiment with Asian-American women taking a math exam, when their Asian identity was salient they performed best; when their female identity was salient they performed worst; and when neither identity was salient (= control group) they performed in the middle.@9Siann, Gerda Durndell, Alan Mcleod, Hamish Glissov, Peter 1988NHStereotyping in relation to the gender gap in participation in computingEducational Research302 98-103ZSStereotypes and bias Attitudes and expectations Postsecondary/tertiary Outside U.S.rl928 university students in Edinburgh were randomly assigned questionnaires describing a female computer scientist, with the other half getting an otherwise identical male computer scientist. On eight of the attributes (more self-reliant, fun to be with, independent, approachable, likeable, sympathetic, well-adjusted, popular, and less introverted), Karen was rated more positively than Kevin (higher in introverted and serious), an effect held respective of the sex of the rater or the subject studied by the rater. "Negative stereotyping of female computer scientists is becoming increasingly less likely." (p. 98)4.Siann, G. Macleod, H. Glissov, P. Durndell, A. 1990PJThe effect of computer use on gender differences in attitudes to computersComputers and Education142183-191d]Single-sex environment Attitudes and expectations Programming Elementary/primary Outside U.S.0Primary school children in Scotland were studied at Logo programming in pairs. Half used list processing and half used graphic processing. Some pairs were single sex and others were mixed. In the pretest, boys were more confident of their computer skills, had more interest in computers, and were likelier to believe that computing required high ability. After the intervention, gender differences in attitudes diminished, except that girls' anxiety levels relative to boys increased. Neither the programming approach nor the sex composition of the dyad made a difference. Observations indicated that in mixed-sex dyads the boys dominated.o Siann, Gerda 1997XQWe can, we don't want to: Factors influencing women's participation in computingn R. Lander A. AdamWomen in Computing  Exeter, UK Intellect Books& Could not obtain: not reviewed. Singh, Parlo 1993Institutional discourse and practice: A case study of the social construction of technological competence in the primary classroom0)British Journal of Sociology of Education141 39-58{.'Culture Elementary/primary Outside U.S.A primary classroom in Australia was studied. The boys' control over power/relations in the computer setting is strengthened by the support of the classroom teacher, who acknowledges the boys' claim to computer experience. The behavior of boys in this social construction is interpreted as risk-taking, experimental, and technologically competent. Girls are positioned as inactive, passive, and rule followers.Skyllingstad, Devon n.d.VOAn exploration into the lack of female high school students in computer science HBAttitudes and expectations Interventions Age Secondary/high school>7Surveys of high school students in the Cincinnati (Ohio) area found that males and females had about the same skill level. Howevr, students felt that males are more encouraged in CS than females, that girls lose interest in CS as they get older, and that girls perceived CS as a predominantly male field. While fewer females were interested in majoring in CS, a larger percentage of those who were said they had been explicitly encouraged, so encouragement is important. Females with higher computer self-confidence were more likely to be interested in a CS major.XQhttp://cerebro.cs.xu.edu/~devon/crew/formattedghc.pdf, retrieved November 8, 2004Slesnick, Twila 1985.'Software for girls: A sexist solution? K. Duncan and D. Harris 0*World Conference on Computers in Education  Norfolk, VA839-841SoftwareSoftware developed just for girls would be sexist software. What is needed is software that appeals equally to boys and girls. Smith, S.D. 1986TNRelationships of computer attitudes to sex, grade level, and teacher influenceEducational Studies  1063338-344& Could not obtain: not reviewed.Smith, Sara Dawn 1987\UComputer attitudes of teachers and students in relationship to gender and grade level0)Journal of Educational Computing Research3@4479-4946/Attitudes and expectations Teachers and faculty(!In a district-wide study of teachers and students, females showed stronger feelings for equity in computer use and careers than males. Teachers showed significantly higher attitudes favoring equality of the sexes in computer abilities and potential for computer careers than students did.? K. Duncan and D. Harris 0*World Conference on Computers in Education  Norfolk, VA839-841SoftwareSoftware developed just for girls would be sexist software. What is needed is software that appeals equally to boys and girls. Smith, S.D. 1986TNRelationships of computer attitudes to sex, grade level, and teacher influenceEducational Studies  1063338-344& Could not obtain: not reviewed.Smith, Sara Dawn 1987\UComputer attitudes of teachers and students in relationship to gender and grade level0)Journal of Educational Computing Research3@4479-4946/Attitudes and expectations Teachers and faculty(!In a district-wide study of teachers and students, females showed stronger feelings for equity in computer use and careers than males. Teachers showed significantly higher attitudes favoring equality of the sexes in computer abilities and potential for computer careers than students did.ahgt<BeTSanders, Jo Shuchat 1985<5Reflections from the Computer Equity Training Project0)American Educational Research Association Chicago2+Early work Programming Teachers and faculty{Programming gender gap remained constant between 1978 and 1982. Paper presents evidence for the computer gender gap at school, home, in summer camps, in computer magazines, and in occupations. It identifies six of the 29 "speculations" (Sanders, 1984) which are "nearly certain" as causes of the computer gender gap and five that are "probable." It specifies teachers as key.("Sanders, Jo Shuchat Stone, Antonia 198682The Neuter Computer: Computers for Girls and Boys New York Neal-Schuman PublisherstmBarriers Use patterns Parents and home Teacher education Interventions Access Peers and friends Interventions60Strategies for educators, parents, and students. Sanders, Jo 1986<5The computer gender gap: Close it while there's time The Monitor24 7/8t 18 ff.January/February Use patterns Interventions|vReports on the Computer Equity Expert Project, where girls' computer use increased 144%. Interventions are suggested. Sanders, Jo McGinnis, Mary 19870)Closing the computer gender gap in school@RLWomen's Worlds: The Third International Interdisciplinary Congress on Women DublinnhEarly work Classroom interactions Software Aggression Peers and friends Mathematics Teachers and facultyEvidence, consequences, and causes of the computer gender gap are presented. Causes: Math, machines, software, stereotypes, first-come/first-served, competing interests, unorganized computer time, computers without instruction, home responsibilities. The experiment in Fish et al. (1986) is summarized. Major lessons: target girls clearly and in friendship groups, make computing useful, use software girls find attractive, and make the teacher pro-active.e Sanders, Jo McGinnis, Mary 1988 Computer equity for girls Anne O'Brien Carelli81Sex Equity in Education: Readings and Strategies Springfield, IL Charles C. Thomas157-172d]Curriculum Interventions Classroom interactions Teachers and faculty Peers and friends PolicyAfter summarizing evidence for and consequences of the computer gender gap, the authors present intervention categories for teachers: focus specifically on girls, stress usefulness, schedule optional computer time, start a girls' computer committee, offer computer graphics, have girls help teach computing, hold a computer career fair. Interventions for administrators are: educate faculty, expand faculty access to computers, establish computer equity as policy. The authors warn that the computer gender gap will not disappear soon, and that educators must decide whether computer use should be entirely optional or totally required for all the authors recommend that it be required.  Sanders, Jo McGinnis, Mary 1989:4Does your daughter say "No, thanks" to the computer? Women's Action AllianceParents and homeRKDescribes the computer gender gap at home and what parents can do about it.tT@L Spertus, Ellen 199160Why Are There So Few Female Computer Scientists?  Cambridge, MA ,&MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory 102 August 1991B;Culture Attitudes and expectations Language and terminology{XRSex-role stereotyping in society, the computer culture, and in technical language.Spertus, Ellen 2000:4Wit helps women in computer science combat ignoranceCPSR Newsletter18181Attitudes and expectations Postsecondary/tertiaryWomen in technology in higher education, both students and faculty, must deal with the expectations of many others that they should be like men.rlhttp://www.cpsr.org/publications/newsletters/issues/2000/Winter2000/spertus.html, retrieved January 26, 2005>8Spotts, Thomas H.; Bowman, Mary Ann & Mertz, Christopher 1997RLGender and use of instructional technologies: A study of university facultyHigher Education344421-436RLTeachers and faculty Experience Use patterns Barriers Postsecondary/tertiaryMale and female faculty at a midwestern public university were studied. Males rated their knowledge and experience with some innovative technologies higher than women did, though there was no difference in frequency of use. Women were more likely to cite these factors as influencing technology use: time to learn it, increased student learning, ease of use, training, and available information. Women were more likely than men to cite lack of time and lack of contribution to professional advancement as barriers. (Abstract only)2+Sproull, Lee; Zubrow, David & Kiesler, Sara 19864.Cultural socialization to computing in college"Computers in Human Behavior2257-275Culture`ZFreshmen at two universities were surveyed about their responses to CS courses vs to other courses. They were more likely to report "reality shock, confusion, control attempts, anger, and withdrawal" (p. 257) in their CS courses than the others. Feelings were more negative in the teaching university as opposed to the research university, in females, in students who had not taken a computing course in high school, and students who were not majoring in science or engineering. However, "even male, experienced, engineering, and science students encountered computing as an alien culture." (p. 257) Starr, Linda 2000VPAn Education World e-interview with Sherry Turkle: Is technology just for boys?October 11, 2001 Curriculum$"[G]irls are not afraid [of computers] but ... they are uninspired and alienated by the way K-12 education presents computing to them." Computing should be present throughout the curriculum. The curriculum must be flexible enough to accommodate people's different paths to technology.:3http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr228.shtmlSteele, Claude M. 1997XQA threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance0American Psychologist526613-629Stereotype threat0*The original article on stereotype threat.Steele, Maggie 1997LFUsing music to increase interest in computers for girls and minoritiesTeaching and Change44293-311 CurriculumAn elementary school teacher used a computer-based music composition program to interest girls and children of color in the computer. They all liked it.,%Stumpf, Heinrich & Stanley, Julian C. 1997f`The gender gap in Advanced Placement computer science: Participation and performance, 1984-1996College Board Review 181 22-27 JulyTMHigh school learning & achievement Enrollments Mathematics Advanced PlacementIn a study of Advanced Placement CS exams AB (since it started in 1984) and A (when it started in 1991) through 1996, it was found that the percentage of girls taking the test decreased in both exams and that males consistently outperformed females throughout. However, in both exams the gender difference in the scores decreased fairly steadily over the years, so that now it is smaller than before. This pattern is different from the math and science pattern where gender differences in scores tended to be rather stable over the years. "Clearly, strong efforts should be made so that computer science, which is critically important for many academic specialties and for social progress, will be more attractive to women." (p. 27) X X Journal of Educational Media40Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia Journal of Educational Policy$!Journal of Educational Psychology$Journal of Educational Research*,)Journal of Educational Technology Systems$Journal of Educational Thought*Journal of Educationl$ Journal of Engineering Education,)Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,(Journal of Gender, Work and Organization$!Journal of Industrial Technology<7Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education0,Journal of Personality and Social Psychology40Journal of Research and Development in Education|,'Journal of Research in Science Teaching0-Journal of Research on Computing in EducationJournal of School Health0+Journal of Science Education and Technology0 Journal of Systems Software0+Journal of Technology and Teacher Education0<7Journal of the American Society for Information Science$Journal of Vocational Behavior*@:Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering("Learning & Leading with TechnologyLearning and Instruction$Library and Information Science*,(Library and Information Science Research84Meridian Middle School Computer Technologies Journal<8Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal<6Mind, Culture, and Activity: An International Journal NASPA JournalNASSP Bulletin"HH($National Teaching and Learning Forum@;NCSEE News (National Coalition for Sex Equity in Education)0*New Zealand Journal of Educational StudiesZ0 Peabody Journal of Education,&Personality and Individual Differences0*Personality and Social Psychology BulletinZ0 Principal ProspectsPsychological Science$ Psychology and Human Development Psychology of Women QuarterlyPsychology TodayHPublic Opinion Quarterly Research in Higher Education0-Research in Science & Technological Education$Review of Educational Research*0,Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research$School Science and Mathematics*$Sex Equity in Education Update*$!Sex Roles: A Journal of ResearchSIGCSE BulletinHH4/Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society$SIGSCE BulletinHHSocial Development $Social Psychology of Education*$Social Science Computer Review*Sociology of Education Teacher Education QuarterlyTeaching and Change  Tech Trends0Techdirections"HH0+Technological Horizons in Education Journal0Technology and Learning Technos TechTrendsZ085The Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult EducationThe Clearing House The Computing TeacherLFThe CPSR Newsletter (Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility)The Executive EducatorThe Information SocietyThe Journal of Crudiness The Monitor0The PsychologistHThe School CounselorThe Technology TeacherTheory into Practice <6TIES: The Magazine of Design and Technology Education40Turkish Online Journal of Educational TechnologyLFUNESCO International Science, Technology, and Environmental NewsletterUniversity ComputingVisitor Studies Today<7Women's Educational Equity Act Publishing Center Digest(#Women's Studies International ForumWomen's Studies Quarterlyd c<b`{*2^81Roy, Marguerite Taylor, Roger Chi, Michelene T.H. 2003f`Searching for information on-line and off-line: Gender differences among middle school students0)Journal of Educational Computing Research292229-252& Telecommunications Middle school28 8th grade students were randomly assigned to a Web or library search condition to answer a question about mosquitoes. Boys learned more information than girls in the Web condition. (Abstract only)y<5Rubin, Andee Murray, Megan O'Neil, Kim Ashley, Juania 1997@9What kind of educational computer games would girls like?0)American Educational Research Association ChicagoR<6Software Games Stereotypes and bias Elementary/primaryThe authors are concerned with educational computer games on math that interest girls. Much "girl" software "appeals to stereotypically female interests: shopping, makeup, fashion, dating." (p. 1) Using the Logical Journal of the Zoombonis (developed at TERC, published by Broderbund), they noted that 3rd to 5th grade girls were as enthusiastic about it as boys because of greater character dimensionality, the puzzle nature of the game, and opportunities for communication the game affords.:4http://www.terc.edu/mathequity/gw/html/MITpaper.htmlRyan, C. 19942,Raising girls' awareness of computer careersJD5th IFIP International Conference on Women, Work and Computerization Manchester, UK& Could not obtain: not reviewed. Sackrowitz, Marian 1995TMAn unlevel playing field: Women in the introductory computer science courses  Princeton NJ Princeton University JuneERIC ED 384 389LEExperience Attitudes and expectations Pipeline Postsecondary/tertiary zRutgers and Princeton students in the introductory computer science course were studied, of whom about 30% were women. The groups were different in many ways (at Rutgers nearly half intended to major in CS while at Princeton only 16% did; Rutgers students were on the average older). While there were a variety of different results in the two campuses, the overall conclusion is that men's earlier computer success leads to future success, while women's lesser early experience leads to greater difficulty later. "There seems to be a positive feedback loop operating for the men and a negative one operating for the women." (p. 14)<5Sacks, Colin H. Bellisimo, Yolanda Mergendoller, John 1993HAAttitudes toward computers and computer use: The issue of gender4-Journal of Research on Computing in Education262257-269NHAttitudes and expectations Secondary/high school Experience ApplicationsStudents with deficient academic skills and little prior computer experience in an alternative high school were studied about their attitude toward and use of computers for word processing. Girls and boys had about the same liking and confidence scores in the pretest. Girls' attitudes improved over the four months while those of boys did not. There were no sex differences in computer use. Boys' attitudes did not correlate with their computer use, but girls' attitudes did.Sanders, Jo Shuchat 19842+The computer: Male, female or androgynous?The Computing Teacher 31-34 AprilrkEarly work Stereotypes and bias Attitudes and expectations Parents and home Software Classroom interactions Article presented "speculations" about the causes of the computer gender gap in terms of 29 factors in attitudes and associations, developmental and behavioral factors, parents, software and computer use, and school logistics, and called for research in these areas.Sanders, Jo Shuchat 1985 Making the computer neuterThe Computing Teacher 23-27b Aprilf_Media Early work Classroom interactions Teachers and faculty Peers and friends Parents and home\UThe article analyzed the computer gender gap in terms of the male bias in computer media, in home computer ownership and use, and software. About half the computer teachers are female, so it can't be due to male teachers. One reason is the absence of girls' girlfriends, not the presence of boys. Social interactions at the computer help.tSanders, Jo Shuchat 1985NHHere's how you can help girls take greater advantage of school computers$American School Board Journal 37-38 AprilJDEarly work Teachers and faculty Interventions Access Software Policy&Recommendations for actions school boards can take to remedy computer inequity: increase optional access, set policy on bias in software, provide training to teachers in computers and sex equity, require computer courses, assign women to computer staff, and counteract sex stereotyping.  vN\  {Inkpen, Kori Upitis, Rena Klawe, Maria Lawry, Joan Anderson, Ann Ndunda, Mutindi Sedighian, Kamran Leroux, Steve Hsu, David N.D.\V"We have never-forgetful flowers in our garden": Girls' responses to electronic gamesGames Outside U.S.In a science museum in Canada, girls were obseved playing electronic games, both video and computer. They preferred playing them socially and preferred computer games over video games.d(!Inzlicht, Michael Ben-Zeev, Talia 2000A threatening intellectual environment: Why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving deficits in the presence of malesPsychological ScienceK115365-371}2+Critical mass Stereotype threat MathematicsFemale undergraduates experienced stereotype threat (measured by lower scores) while taking a math test but not a verbal test. In a second experiment with only a math test, their scores were somewhat lower when they took the test in small groups with males rather than only with other females. This is not specifically about computers but it makes important points about critical mass and stereotype threat.t Irwin, Leslie 2000leGender inequities in technology in developing nations: Females and computers in traditional cultures Intercultural Education112195-200*#Culture Cross-cultural Outside U.S.Computers reflect their creators: American western males. There is a disharmony between the creator culture and the user culture, particularly in developing countries and especially for the females among them. Computer ownership in 1999 was 6% in Ghana and 9% in China at a time it was 78% in the United States, and most of those owners were male. Implications for education include special efforts to introduce computers to women and to train teachers to counsel girls toward professions in technology.Jacobson, Frances F. 1991`ZGender differences in attitudes toward using computers in libraries: An exploratory study.(Library and Information Science Research13267-279 Attitudes and expectationsAcademically oriented high school students were studied about computer attitudes with respect to using computers for library research. Girls had significantly higher computer anxiety and more anxiety about using computers for library research than boys. By the end of the academic year, girls' increased comfort level with using computers in general was not enough to offset their anxiety about using computers in libraries.B;Jagacinski, Carolyn M. LeBold, William K. Salvendy, Gavriel 1988B8Retention Postsecondary/tertiary Role models and mentorsOver 3,000 American undergraduate students in CS, computer technology, electrical/computer engineering and industrial engineering were studied to determine factors related to persistence or nonpersistence in their major. In CS women (as opposed to CS men and men and women in the other fields), there were few differences between persisters and nonpersisters. Article refers to a program in the early 70's for women in science: a group with role models were twice as likely to persist as the control group.p>8Jakobsdottir, Solveig Krey, Cynthia L. Sales, Gregory C. 1994F?Computer graphics: Preferences by gender in grades 2, 4, and 6&Journal of Educational Research=882  91-100$Stereotypes and bias Graphicsf_After reviewing literature, researchers came up with a list of graphic elements (content, color, characters, atmosphere) that appealed to boys, those that appealed to girls, and those of equal interest. Testing the computer graphics confirmed boys' and girls' preferences for such pictures. Authors recommend using mixed images from both categories.Jenkins, Edgar W. 19972+Gender and science and technology educationLFUNESCO International Science, Technology, and Environmental Newsletter1 1-2& Could not obtain: not reviewed.4-Jennings, Susan Evans Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. 2001^XComputer attitudes as a function of age, gender, math attitude, and developmental status0)Journal of Educational Computing Research254367-384 Attitudes and expectationsA study of students in three age groups found no main effect for gender with respect to dimensions of computer attitude (anxiety, confidence, liking, and usefulness). (Abstract only)y82Jenson, Jennifer de Castell, Suzanne Bryson, Mary 2003^X"Girl talk": Gender, equity, and identity discourses in a school-based computer culture*#Women's Studies International Forum266561-573XQInterventions Role models and mentors Single-sex environment Culture Outside U.S.4.In a Canadian school, female teachers and girls ages 9-13 were given first training on the new computers, who then provided training to male teachers and boys in an effort to provide technological competence and role models to females. In addition, female "experts" taught other classes of boys and girls on the new computers. Staff and parents were uncomfortable with the notion that this procedure was being followed for reasons of gender equity ("reverse discrimination"), so the researchers downplayed the gender aspect to retain cooperation. Toward the end of the year, however, teachers noticed that girls were speaking out more about what they perceived as gender inequities, and not only with the computers. The girls felt their competence with computers had increased, partly because of the all-girls context in which they had learned. Perhaps because the inequities were not named or identified as "gender-related," they returned the year after the project, unresisted by participating teachers and students, back to "gendered business as usual." (p. 569) #"n!>8Bravo, Melinda J. Gilbert, Lucia Albino Kearney, Lisa K. 2003PIInterventions for promoting gender equitable technology use in classrooms"Teacher Education Quarterly304 95-109LESchool programs Attitudes and expectations Pedagogy Teacher educationThey had middle-school kids act out two skits (a kid trying to join a group of boys at the computer, a newly hired team leader in a computer game development firm), with discussion. They did two collaborative activities (true/false has students give evidence on stereotypes about gender and computers; and another to reinforce girls as designers and leaders of technology), with discussion. 7th grade teachers felt both girls and boys had reduced gender-stereotyped attitudes and behavior.iBreene, L. Anne 1992 Women and computer science Initiatives 552 39-44e0)Culture Stereotypes and bias Outside U.S.JDForeign-born CS professors often have cultural biases against women.Broihier, M. et al. 1989B8Computerphobia: Is it a particularly female phenomenon?The Psychologist7v 73-78FebruarypiPostsecondary/tertiary Attitudes and expectations Stereotypes and bias Experience Research review Culture A 1994 research review of "computerphobia." Fewer women enter CS, but those who do and stay do as well as the men. From the 80s to the 90s, explanations of the computer gap moved from biological explanations (males' aggressiveness, superior spatial relations ability) to social ones. Attitudinal factors ("computer anxiety") almost become psychiatric disorders! Attitude vs. experience as predictive factor for participation. There is not agreement on the relative strength of attitude, experience, and related factors. Brosnan, Mark 1994JCDesign factors affecting gender issues in human-computer inteaction Manchester, UK University of Manchester& Could not obtain: not reviewed.Brosnan, M. Davidson, M. 1996.(Psychological gender issues in computing.(Journal of Gender, Work and Organization31 13-25& Could not obtain: not reviewed.Brosnan, Mark J. 1998rkThe role of psychological gender in the computer-related attainments of primary school children (aged 6-11)Computers and Education30 3-4203-208`ZAttitudes and expectations Stereotypes and bias Role models and mentors Elementary/primaryGForty-eight children, aged 6 to 7 and 10 to 11, were given the Bem Children's Sex Role Inventory to assess masculinity and femininity, a test to assess children's attitude toward computers, and a computer skill performance test. Males had more positive attitudes and higher attainment levels than females, but rather than the children's sex it was their masculinity/femininity rating that was more predictive of computer attitude and skill. In a society that masculinizes computing, children of both sexes with high masculinity were more positive about computers and achieved higher skill levels than children with high femininity. "[P]sychological gender is a more salient factor determining differences in computer attainment than biological sex." (p. 206) Providing computer-confident role models for girls is especially important.    Brosnan, Mark Lee, Wanbil 1998~xA cross-cultural comparison of gender differences in computer attitudes and anxieties: The United Kingdom and Hong Kong"Computers in Human Behavior144559-577u<6Attitudes and expectations Cross-cultural Outside U.S.In the UK sample, there were no gender differences in computer anxiety, but males held more positive attitudes than females. For the Hong Kong sample, it was the reverse: there were no gender differences in computer attitudes but males reported greater computer anxiety than females, especially when anticipating using computers (as opposed to actually using them). "This is the first sample in which males have been found to be more computer anxious than females." (Abstract only)yBrosnan, Mark J. 1998The impact of psychological gender, gender-related perceptions, significant others, and the introducer of technology upon computer anxiety in students0)Journal of Educational Computing Research181 63-78LFAttitudes and expectations Use patterns Games Programming Outside U.S.@:119 first-year UK college students took a computer anxiety questionnaire and the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Females were significantly more computer anxious than males. Males reported twice the number of hours on the computer per week than females, especially games and programming. The more anxious students had less experience. High-femininity males scored higher for computer anxiety, and high-masculinity females scored lower for computer anxiety. Females were more likely than males to perceive computing as a male activity. For students who owned home computers, more fathers than mothers used it. Females were more likely to be introduced to computers by a teacher than by a friend or family member, which was the case for males. Introduction to computers by a teachers was associated with higher computer anxiety. Brosnan, Mark 1999\UNew methodology and old story? Gender differences in the "draw a computer user" test2+European Journal of Psychology of Education143375-385& Could not obtain: not reviewed. Brown, Bettina Lankard 20010)Women and minorities in high-tech careersERIC Digest #226NGCareer factors Race, ethnicity, or low SES Curriculum Outreach PedagogySummary of ways to interest girls and minorities in IT: connect to their interests, involve business, provide career info, collaborative learning, introduce in middle school, mentors/role modelsBrownhill, Carrie 1989^WFactors affecting the decisions of women to enter doctoral programs in computer science  Irvine, CA ("University of California at Irvine& Could not obtain: not reviewed. Brunner, Cornelia 1992"Gender and distance learning("Center for Technology in Education New York & Bank Street College of Education January 1992Technical Report #19<5Culture Telecommunications Attitudes and expectationssWomen fantasize about small appealing objects that allow them to collaborate, create, share work, and integrate home and work lives. Men wish for magic wands that give them power, speed, and wisdom. .~-,Qx_+hFDPd ~xAmerican Association of University Women Educational Foundation Commission on Technology, Gender, and Teacher Education, 2004PIUnder the microscope: A decade of gender equity projects in the sciences  Susan K. Dyer Washington D.C.K AuthorSingle-sex environment Career factors Programming Applications Middle school Secondary/high school School programs Extracurricular programs Attitudes and expectationsAAUW surveyed gender-related projects funded by the AAUW Educational Foundation and the National Science Foundation. 57% of technology projects were for girls only, targeted middle-school students, were extracurricular, and focused on affect (as opposed to academics).:4Anderson, Ronald E. Welch, Wayne W. Harris, Linda J. 1983@:Computer inequities in opportunities for computer literacy ,%Minneapolis: University of Minnesota9September 5, 198344.Programming Race, ethnicity, or low SES AccessProgramming enrollment remains primarily male. Access is a problem. Low-income, female, and rural students are disadvantaged in terms of school computers. Apple, M. 1992VOIs the new technology part of the solution or part of the problem in education?  J.M. Beynon0)Technological Literacy and the Curriculum& Could not obtain: not reviewed.*$Arch, Elizabeth C. Cummins, David E. 1989tnStructured and unstructured exposure to computers: Sex differences in attitude and use among college students(!Sex Roles: A Journal of Research20 5/6{245-2542,Experience Curriculum Postsecondary/tertiaryIn an experiment with 362 first-year college students, students were randomly assigned to an introductory writing course either with word processing taught as part of the course ("structured condition") or with computers and instruction readily available at the student's initiative ("unstructured condition"). Females in the structured condition went from lowest computer use prior to the course to the highest among the four groups (M/F, structured/unstructured), and scored significantly higher than females in the unstructured condition also on attitude towards computers and perceived skill level, all on self-ratings. For females, prior computer use was correlated to subsequent use; not true of males.Arch, Elizabeth C. 1995b[The Baldwin Effect: A basis for sex differences in attitudes toward technology and science0)American Educational Research AssociationT,%Attitudes and expectations Curriculumb\Project designed to improve girls' attitudes towards computers and science using multimedia.("Arenz, Bernard W. Lee, Millheon J. 1990jdGender differences in the attitude, interest and participation of secondary students in computer use0)American Educational Research Association Boston ED 327 389High school learning & achievement Middle school learning & achievement Role models and mentors Attitudes and expectations Use patternsGender differences in several studies were found in role models, attitudes, interest, and computer use, which may contribute to a continuing stereotype of computing as a male domain. (abstract only)yF?Armstrong-Stassen, Marjorie Landstrom, Margaret Lumpkin, Ramona 1998\VStudents' reactions to the introduction of videoconferencing for classroom instructionThe Information Society0142153-164Distance educationCollege students with no experience with a videoconference course were surveyed at the beginning and end of a semsester's course in seven different courses. There was no gender difference at the beginning. Women's attitudes were significantly less positive about taking a videoconference course at both the origination and remote sites in comparison with men and with their own attitudes at the beginning of the semester. (Abstract only)yArnez, B.W. Lee, M.J.b 1990leGender differences in the attitude, interest, and participation of secondary students in computer use0)American Educational Research Associationh Boston& Could not obtain: not reviewed.Aronson, Joshua 2002LEStereotype threat: Contending and coping with unnerving expectations Aronson, JoshuaTMImproving Academic Achievement: Impact of Psychological Factors on Education  San Diego Academic Press281-301 Phye, Gary D.$Educational Psychology Series(!Stereotype threat Research reviewRLGreat explanation of stereotype threat and summary of research on the topic.Aronson, Joshua 2004The threat of stereotypeEducational Leadership624 14-19Stereotype threatExcellent introductory article about stereotype threat: anxiety in evaluative contexts about the possibility of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group decreases performance, which seems to confirm the stereotype.HBAtan, Hanafi Azli, Nazirah A. Rahman, Zuraidah A. Idrus, Rozman M. 2002b\Computers in distance education: Gender differences in self-perceived computer competencies"Journal of Educational Media273123-135<6Distance education Outside U.S. Postsecondary/tertiaryDistance education students at a university in Malaysia were studied. The researchers found no gender differences in competencies in the usage of general computer software and networking software, both needed to support and facilitate learning in distance education. However, competencies in handling computer hardware and performing computer maintenance favored males. (Abstract only)4.Atan, H. Sulaiman, F. Rahman, Z.A. Idrus, R.M. 2002ztGender differences in availability, internet access and rate of usage of computers among distance education learners&Educational Media International 39 3-4r205-210D=Distance education Telecommunications Parents and home AccessThe study found no gender differences in the availability of computers, internet accessibility, and rate of computer use either at home or at work for distance education learners. (Abstract only)"Attewell, Paul Battle, Juan 1999,%Home computers and school performanceThe Information Society151 1-10:3Parents and home Access Race, ethnicity, or low SESAccess to home computers was studied in terms of performance in school math and reading; it was shown to have an educational payoff in comparison with children who had no such access. However, controlling for family income and for cultural and social capital, it was found that boys benefited more than girls, children from higher SES families more than those from lower SES families, and white children more than minority children. Home computing may therefore generate another "Sesame Street effect" whereby an innovation that held great promise for poorer children to catch up educationally with more affluent children in practice increases the gap between them. (Abstract only)jL*p ^WHoney, Margaret Moeller, Babette Brunner, Cornelia Bennett, Peggy Clements Hawkins, Jan 1991LFGirls and design: Exploring the question of technological imaginationTechnical Report No. 17 New York JDCenter for Technology in Education, Bank Street College of Education August82Curriculum Pedagogy Adults Middle school Culture"Twenty-four adult technology experts and 80 early adolescents were asked about their views of technology. Females saw technology as people connectors, communication, and collaboration devices. Males tended to see technology as extensions of their power over the physical universe.v Houle, Philip 1996JDToward understanding student differences in a computer skills course0)Journal of Educational Computing Research141 25-4881Postsecondary/tertiary Attitudes and expectations0*The study involved 221 business administration students who were surveyed about computer anxiety, attitude, self-efficacy, and cognitive style. Gender was one of many demographic variables. Very little gender difference was found in the four measures except for self-efficacy which favored males. Howell, Kathy 1993^WThe experience of women in undergraduate computer science: What does the research say?SIGSCE Bulletin{252& Could not obtain: not reviewed. Hoyles, Celia 1988Review of the literature  Celia HoylesGirls and Computers London 2,Institute of Education, University of LondonBedford Way Papers 34JDResearch review Attitudes and expectations Access Media Use patternsChapter reviews literature on attitudes about computers, public image of computers, and access to and use of computers in schools.  Hoyles, Celia 1988Girls and ComputersNo. Bedford Papers 34 London 2,Institute of Education, University of London& Could not obtain: not reviewed.*#Hsi, Sherry Hoadley, Christopher M. 1997TMProductive discussion in science; Gender equity through electronic discourse2+Journal of Science Education and Technology6k1 23-360)Classroom interactions Telecommunications"Students' discussion was studied in electronic and classroom modes. Females participated in electronic discussion more than males, and less than males in classroom discussion. Girls reported feeling less stifled in an electronic medium when anonymity was an option. (Abstract only)Huang, Shwu-Yong L. 2003LEEducation students' perceptions of computers: A cross-cultural study0)Journal of Educational Computing Research294451-469 <6Attitudes and expectations Cross-cultural Outside U.S.nh360 education students in the U.S. and Taiwan were surveyed about their computer attitudes. Taiwanese students indicated significantly higher concerns about gender-related differences than their counterparts in the U.S. Females in both countries disagreed that males work better with computers than females; males in both countries were more likely to agree. n~ XqZ]*#xLPalmer, Carolynp 1989Women and computers Email message March 6, 1989D>Experience Use patterns Postsecondary/tertiary Physical safetyAn analysis of computer use patterns at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign revealed that men used computers available to students more in the Student Union and in the residence halls at all times. Physical safety after dark is an issue. Parisi, Lynn 1984D>Sex equity in computer education: Concerns for social studies ERIC Digest15 August0)Early work Culture Aggression MathematicsThe computer gender gap is caused by the male culture of computers, the link with mathematics, and boys' aggressive behavior at the terminals.&Parker, Janet Widmer, Constancep 1984<6Some disturbing data: Sex differences in computer use0)National Educational Computing Conference6/Early work Extracurricular programs ProgrammingkIn this 1984 paper data was presented on a gender gap in high school and college programming courses and in high school computer clubs and computer contests.s Passig, David Levin, Haya 1999F?Gender interest differences with multimedia learning interfacesr"Computers in Human Behavioru15173-183,%Telecommunications Graphics PreschoolsTNKindergarten students were studied about gender differences in multimedia design preferences. Males spent more time on task. Females were more likely to ask for help and preferred games that involved writing. Males preferred green, blue, and movement, while females preferred red, yellow, and colorful screens filled with drawings.XRPearl, Amy Pollack, Martha E. Riskin, Eve Thomas, Beckly Wolf, Elizabeth Wu, Alice 1990ngBecoming a computer scientist: A report by the ACM Committe on the Status of Women in Computer Science Communications of the ACM3311 47-57Pipeline Postsecondary/tertiary Games Software Culture Retention Teachers and faculty Physical safety Attitudes and expectations Role models and mentors Stereotypes and bias Career factorsWomen are underrepresented in many sciences, but computing has some special factors. Recreational and educational software is based on an adolescent male culture, so by college computing has a male cultural component which leads to female dropouts and affects even women who persist. Faculty need an increased sensitivity to women students and colleagues. Women who use computers at school after dark face physical safety issues men don't, interfering with their education. Other factors common to women in male-dominated areas: low self-esteem, lack of role models and mentoring, gender discrimination, and career/family balance problems. Pelgrum, W.J. 199260International research on computers in education Prospects223341-349& Could not obtain: not reviewed.Perry, Ruth Greber, Lisa 1990,%Women and computers: An introduction6/Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society1611 74-101CultureTo remedy "the increasing marginalization of women in computer science" (p. 90), girls must be reached. The male culture must be diminished and "a greater variety of intellectual styles" must be encouraged (p. 98)Plamondon, Kathy Kidd 1994VOGender differences among early elementary students in computer use and interestTeaching and Change13285-294"Elementary/primary PreschoolzK-2 students were offered the use of a computer as a composing medium. Girls chose the computer more often than boys did.*#Pope-Davis, Donald B. Twing, Jon S. 1991\VThe effects of age, gender, and experience on measures of attitude regarding computers"Computers in Human Behavior7333-339F@Experience Attitudes and expectations Postsecondary/tertiary Age Contrary to other studies, it was experience (more) and age (older) and not gender that had a positive influence on computer attitudes among 207 American college students in education enrolled in an introductory computer course. There was no main effect for gender..(Pope-Davis, Donald B. Vispoel, Walter P. 1993VOHow instruction influences attitudes of college men and women towards computers"Computers in Human Behavior9 83-9381Postsecondary/tertiary Attitudes and expectationsyAmerican education and liberal arts college students were studied. About 60% chose to take a training course in microcomputers. The control group was an introductory psychology course for undergrads and graduate students; they received no special instruction in computers. Computer attitudes were measured. Males and females' attitudes (anxiety, confidence, interest and especially usefulness) improved after training compared to the pretest and the control group, despite a small pretest advantage in the experimental group for males in anxiety (less), confidence (more) and interest (more). Subjects were not randomly selected.Pozzi, Stefano et al. 1993\VLearning and interaction in groups with computers: When do ability and gender matter?Social Development23222-251& Could not obtain: not reviewed. ("Project on Equal Education Rights, 1985D=Sex bias at the computer terminal: How schools program girls  Washington DC *$NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund1&Early work Programming SoftwareThe report discussed imbalances in programming, the importance of computer literacy, and biased computer-assisted learning software. $$Shashaani, Lily 1994ZTSocioeconomic status, parents' sex-role stereotypes, and the gender gap in computing4-Journal of Research on Computing in Education264433-451tnAttitudes and expectations Parents and home Race, ethnicity, or SES Secondary/high school Stereotypes and bias1,730 9th and 12th graders were studied in 1991-92 to determine the effect of family SES and parental sex-typed views and behaviors on children's attitudes toward computers. They were surveyed about computer attitudes and their perceptions of their parents gender-relevant attitudes and encouragement/discouragement about computers. Students were asked about parents' occupations and education, which were used to define SES. Both boys and girls believed that their parents felt that computers were more appropriate for boys, and boys reported more parental encouragement. Students' perception of their parents' beliefs and encouragement affected their own interest, confidence, and stereotyped views of computers. Fathers' and mothers' male/computer belief encouraged boys and discouraged girls, and also promoted their childrens' stereotypes about computer users. 67% of the boys reported parental encouragement to take computing, while only 22% of the girls reported it. Students whose parents encouraged them "to take computer courses were more interested in computing, had less stereotypical views about computer users, and had more confidence in working with computers." (p. 441) SES had more influence on females than males. Higher SES mothers had daughters with less gender-stereotyped views about computing and more positive computer attitudes. However, "parental attitudes and encouragement substantially overshadowed the effect of SES on children's computer attitudes." (p. 447)Shashaani, Lilyp 1994XRGender differences in computer experiences and its influence on computer attitudes0)Journal of Educational Computing Research114347-367haExperience Attitudes and expectations Parents and home Stereotypes and bias Secondary/high school1,730 9th and 12th grade students were studied in 1991-92 about their computer experience in school and at home and their computer attitudes. School computer use: boys were more likely to take computer-related courses and to take more of them. They spent more time on school computers than girls. Boys were likelier to plan on taking more computer classes, especially at the 12th grade level. Home computer use: more boys reported a computer at home. Twice as many boys as girls said they were the primary users. Boys were likelier to have used a computer first at home, while for girls it was at school. Attitudes: boys were more interested and had more self-confidence. Girls strongly believed in gender equality in computer skill and ability, unlike boys. Experience x attitudes: There was a weakly positive correlation between computer class enrollment and computer attitudes for both sexes. The presence of a home computer did not associate with students' computer interest at all. For boys, level of computer usage and number of computer courses taken correlated with self-confidence; no such relationship was found for girls. Students who used computers more, both boys and girls, were more in favor of sex equality in computer ability. The number of computer courses taken correlated strongly with perceived utility for both sexes. Conclusion: the author found significant differences favoring boys in computer experience in school and at home, computer class participation, amount of computer usage, and computer ownership.      g p   N X Shashaani, Lily 1995haGender differences in mathematics experience and attitude and their relation to computer attitudevEducational Technology353 32-38v81Mathematics Attitudes and expectations ExperienceStudy of the extent to which experience with and attitudes toward math differed by gender and of the association between math and computer attitudes among adolescents. Males completed more math courses, were more interested in math, and had more confidence in the math ability than females. Math liking and confidence were positively associated with interest in computers and computer confidence.n]v(!Sanders, Jo Campbell, Patricia B. 2001PJMaking it happen: The role of teacher education in ensuring gender equity AACTE Policy Perspectives24 1-5Teacher educationDiscusses the lack of systematic attention to gender issues in preservice teacher education and including gender equity in the teacher education agenda.a Sanders, Jo 2002haSnatching defeat from the jaws of victory: When good projects go bad. Girls and computer science0)American Educational Research Association  New Orleans^WInterventions Enrollments Teachers and faculty Advanced Placement Secondary/high schoolhbThe paper reports on the 6APT project held 1996-99 at Carnegie Mellon University and why it wasn't more successful. There was an increase in the number of teachers carrying out equity strategies after the seminars, but the increase in female (and male) enrollment in Advanced Placement (AP) computer science was more likely due to the change from Pascal to C++ as the AP exam language. The number and type of strategies did not appear to be related to changes in enrollment, since teachers with increased female enrollment carried out fewer intervention strategies than those without increased female enrollment. Possible explanations for the failure: often lone teachers from a school participated in the project, there was insufficient followup after the seminars, the strategies may not have been carried out well or may not have been the most effective ones.FMounfield, L. Taylor, H. 1994ztExploration of the relationship between prior computing experience and gender on success in college computer science0)Journal of Educational Computing Research114291-306& Could not obtain: not reviewed. Muller, Joann 1998HBVirtual equality? Software firms find new niche: Games for girlsBoston Sunday Globe Boston1SoftwareD>Software for girls is "girly" because the market targets boys.Mumtaz, Shazia 2001TNChildren's enjoyment and perception of computer use in the home and the schoolComputers and Education36347-362zParents and home Use patterns Attitudes and expectations Pedagogy Extracurricular programs Elementary/primary Outside U.S.tnChildren in years 3 and 5 in England were studied about computer use at home and at school. Children made more use of home computers than school computers. Boys used home computers most for playing games, girls for emailing friends. Boys spent more time on home computers than girls. School computers were used most for word processing, which children considered boring, and ICT has therefore come to be associated with applications, a negative attitude. "Boys were more confident about using computers at home and at school, and rated themselves better at using computers." (p. 358) Both boys and girls benefit from using home computers but boys benefit more, perhaps because they use it for more time. Teachers should use more interesting and challenging software in school, and should make computers available to kids without home computers on an extracurricular basis.&Munger, Gail F. Loyd, Brenda H. 1989d^Gender and attitudes toward computers and calculators: their relationship to math performance0)Journal of Educational Computing Research52167-177{,&Attitudes and expectations Mathematics6/60 high school students were studied for the relationship between math performance and students' attitudes toward technology (computers and calculators). Greater computer confidence and more positive calculator attitudes correlated with higher math scores, but no gender-related differences were found.de than females and rated their skill level higher. Males spent significantly more time using computers. Game-playing came in first, especially for males; second for girls was homework uses but for boys it was surfing the Net. Asked about future career preferences, girls were most likely to choose artistic careers while boys were most likely to choose IT careers; 59% of the boys but 25% of the girls expressed interest in IT careers.JChttp://www.mun.ca/cwse/Lupart,Judy.pdf, retrieved December 26, 2004 oI$r4tsqB HGl Gurer, Denise Camp, Tracy 19984-Women role models in computer science historyComputing Research News September~Role models and mentorsd^Describes the careers of several pioneering women in computer science for role model purposes.\Vhttp://www.cra.org/CRN/html/9809/expanding/dg.2_2_t.shtml, retrieved December 28, 2004  Gurer, Denise Camp, Tracy 1998TMInvestigating the incredible shrinking pipeline for women in computer science"Final report of NSF Project NSF 98-12016Pipeline Attitudes and expectations Experience Role models and mentors Culture Parents and home Single-sex environment Access Media Aggression Language and terminology Postsecondary/tertiaryd^Pipeline shrinkage is due to negative attitudes, lack of prior computer experience, misleading course prerequisites, games, lack of mentoring and role models, low self-confidence and perceived competence (despite good and sometimes superior performance), male-dominated computing environments, work/motherhood stresses, hostile language, lack of female companionship, lack of access to male-dominated study groups and computer clubs, lack of encouragement from family and teachers, lack of all-female environments, unequal access to computers, and negative media portrayals. They present recommendations to counter problems in each of these areas. Cites a study by M. Moroh & D. Sturm, presented at the National Educational Computing Consortium Conference in1995, that while women felt that men out-performed them in computing, women actually outperformed men. Gurer, Denise Camp, Tracy 200260An ACM-W literature review on women in computingACM SIGCSE Bulletin342121-127Pipeline Research review Attitudes and expectations Experience Games Role models and mentors Context Teachers and faculty Parents and home Single-sex environment Access Aggression Outreach Retention Postsecondary/tertiary Culture Classroom interactions Mathematics A review of the literature in the keyword subjects. Pipeline. In computing, boys act as hosts and girls as guests, which results in girls unknowingly allowing the boys to gain more experience. (p. 121). With more experience, girls compete evenly with boys. Attitudes. Girls' computer attitudes become more negative as they get older. Experience. One problem is pre-requisite courses. When instructors learn that women have had less computer experience, they erroneously interpret lack of ability or interest. Games. Games are most children's first computer experiences, and they are gender-stereotyped, target boys, and exhibit gender biases. There is aggressive behavior in video arcades. Role models. Mentoring and role models help with recruiting and retention. Self-confidence. Professors of both sexes favor males in class, lowering female self-confidence, which is exacerbated by males' sexist attitudes. Computing environments. The male and sometimes hostile environment discourages women. Societal influences. Most images of CS are negative and imply it's for nerds or men, exacerbated by adolescent peer pressure. Teacher and family encouragement. Computer science teachers are often math teachers and favor male students, which creates a male culture in class. In homes, computers are often provided more for boys or their access is favored by parents. Mothers' negative attitude is not helpful. All-female environment. Single-sex environments "can produce women with higher levels of confidence" (p. 123). Single-sex workshops, seminars, or lunches can also help. Graduate school. The pipeline shrinks dramatically from undergraduate to graduate school. CS college majors are often tired of coping with the negative environment and "vehemently decline the offer." (p. 123) Some have difficulty making the transition from being good students in college to the need for being strategic and independent in graduate school. Balancing work and family. Many CS school and work positions are not female-friendly, especially for young mothers. 5 =   T ^              w    B Q   Hackbarth, Steven L. 2001^XChanges in primary students' computer literacy as a function of classroom use and gender TechTrends454 19-27:4Elementary/primary Access Attitudes and expectationsChildren in 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade classes in New York City schools displayed similar attitudes toward computers, senses of efficacy in using them, knowledge of computer terminology, and amount of classroom access. Hafner, Katie 1994.'What is little girls' software made of? HomePC101-105OctoberSoftware GamesngGames with strong stories and characters that appeal to girls may help remedy gender bias in computing. Hafner, Katie 1998"Girl games: Plenty and pinkNew York Times  New York CitySeptember 10, 1998Software Gamesd]Computer games for girls have finally arrived on the market, but they are gender-stereotyped. Hafner, Katie 199960Girls soak up technology in schools of their ownNew York Times  New York CitySeptember 23, 1999Single-sex environment{Describes girls' single-sex education in several private schools, and how helpful this is for math, science and technology.&Hakkarainen, Kai Palonen, Tuire 2003XRPatterns of female and male students' participation in computer-supported learningComputers and Education404327-341Pedagogy Outside U.S.B;In two grade 5-6 classes in Finland, male and female students reacted differently to the computer mode of instruction. Conclusion: "[U]se of new technology should be thoroughly subsumed under pedagogical goals in order to facilitate female students' participation in computer-supported learning." (Abstract only)y Haliburton, William et al. 1998|uGender differences in personality components of computer science students: A test of Hollands' congruence hypothesis SIGSCE '98& Could not obtain: not reviewed.z y(OB RKSax, Linda J.; Astin, Alexander W.; Korn, William S.; & Mahoney, Kathryn M. 2001:4The American freshman: National Norms for Fall 2000 UCLA.'Use patterns Attitudes and expectations<5In the fall 2000 survey of over 400,000 entering freshmen across the U.S., computer use was essentially equal but the gender gap in computer skill confidence was wider than at any time in the 35-year history of the survey. Twice as many men (46%) as women (23%) felt their computer skills were above average.6/http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/heri/norms_pr_00.htmlSchaumburg, Heike 2001zFostering girls' computer literacy through laptop learning: Can mobile computers help to level out the gender difference?0)National Educational Computing Conference Chicagon.(Attitudes and expectations InterventionsA computer literacy test was given to 9th grade students. In two classes students were using laptop computers for the third year and could take them home. In three other classes from the same school students, did not have laptops; 54% of these had their own computers. Computers were also available in the school. Girls without laptops scored lower on almost all of the computer literacy subtests than boys without laptops (the control group). In the experimental group, however, girls scored equally with boys on about half the subtests. They still scored lower than the boys in general confidence in using the computer, and knowledge of hardware, the operating system, and security issues. Experimental girls scored higher in computer knowledge measures than control group girls. However, the researcher did not mention the basis on which students were or were not assigned laptops, nor were pretests done with these students.jdhttp://confreg.uoregon.edu/NECC2001/program/research_pdf/schaumburg.pdf, retrieved December 28, 2004 Schoenberg, Judy 2001NHThe girl difference: Short-circuiting the myth of the technophobic girl  New York City 2,Girls Scouts of the United States of America\UAccess Use patterns Games Parents and home Culture Role models and mentors CurriculumWhile girls now have the same access to technology as boys, three gender gaps remain: in degree of use, in courses in school, and in employment. Girls now use computers differently but as often as boys, games are still male-oriented, children use home computers more than school computers (therefore SES is important, not race/ethnicity), and girls are still not equal in technology careers. Adults are not encouraging girls to take technology, girls perceive themselves as outside the technology culture, games are still male, the computer scientist is associated with maleness, CS is taught in isolation of other subjects, lack of mentors.nhhttp://www.girlscouts.org/research/publications/reviews/girl_difference.asp, retrieved November 29, 2004  p~ dPh+_Q,-.T|/} e jf~l-gm, !n"#+$%&h'VR}]^(./1C02468375S921ukD34= S5687Qv ;:5w9:i.\Z[=xA>@?BUM;C:DE,<F&jGEHWIJ=KLNOlY m *_`*W af4bg'cF2317>id`eynfL?ABHGqrtsIouvJK_w%zx|{ypL9 /N -VOPkzQRSaTU)U[VWX8~Y[Z \#]qb Z!"#$6%&)^*{`xnos\qrmult]pkjaihgvXwdcebOyzX{|r}  RMTc<s0+()Y ;N "!$>?@ABPCDEFGHIJP}%x.R- Jepson, Andrea Perl, Teri 2002Priming the pipelineSIGCSE Bulletin342 36-39PJPipeline Role models and mentors Career factors Media Stereotypes and biasA telephone survey using random digit dialing methodology in the Silicon Valley, Boston and Austin was conducted of 652 college-bound high school female students. Asked "Why are girls less likely to pursue computer science careers?" answers in order of frequency were: 1) Not enough role models. 2) Women have other interests, including family. 3) Didn't know about the industry. 4) Limited opportunity to use computers. 5) Negative media. 6) Too nerdy.*#Jessup, Elizabeth R. Sumner, Tamara 2005<5Design-based learning and women's participation in IT,&Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies261D=Postsecondary/tertiary School programs Curriculum EnrollmentsAn undergraduate CS course has students creating software for local community service agencies. The course attracts a larger proportion of female students than other CS courses.Johnson, James P. 19826/Can computers close the educational equity gap?*#Civil Rights Quarterly Perspectives143 20-25("Early work Race, ethnicity, or SESIn this article there is a concern that the new computer technology may exacerbate inequalities in gender, race/ethnicity, and SES.<6Johnson, Robert T. Johnson, David W. Stanne, Mary Beth 1985piEffects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on computer-assisted instruction(!Journal of Educational Psychology776668-67781Culture Middle school Attitudes and expectations|Researchers studied 8th graders using computer-assisted instruction in cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning environments. Girls' attitudes, compared with those of boys, were adversely affected in the competitive condition.i.(Johnson, Carole Schulte Swoope, Karen F. 1987TMBoys' and girls' interest in using computers: Implications for the classroomUArithmetic Teacher351 14-16 Attitudes and expectationsAbout 1200 students from grades 1-12 were surveyed about their interest in computers. Both boys and girls showed high interest in computer for themselves but both sexes perceived boys' interest as significantly higher than that of girls.*$Johnson, Deborah G. Miller, Keith W. 20020)Is diversity in computing a moral matter?SIGCSE Bulletin`342 9-10 Departmental change PolicyArgues that factors that make CS unattractive to women are unnecessary to the conduct of computing and harmful to the field, and have the unethical effect of discriminating against women.n@:Joiner, Richard Messer, David Littleton, Karen Light, Paul 1996D>Gender, computer experience and computer-based problem solvingComputers and Education26 1-3179-197B;Software Experience Stereotypes and bias Games Outside U.S.Sixty-five 10- and 11-year-old children in England were given a male-stereotyped and a female-stereotyped version of software (pirates and princesses, both adventure games, which were structually identical except for the sex of the good and evil characters, either all male or all female). Their performance was correlated with home computer use, school computer use, and the use of a computer mouse. Kids completed questionnaires a week before using the software. They did both pieces of software 20 minutes apart, then a final questionnaire. Boys performed better in both games than girls and better regardless of which was done first or second. Girls preferred the Princesses version slightly more; there was no difference for the boys, but preference for the Princesses for girls correlated positively with higher performance on it (not true for boys). Although boys had more experience and experience correlated positively with performance, the gap remained even when experience was removed. And obviously changing the gender of the characters didn't make a difference. The intrinsic interest of the software is an important factor in girls' (but not boys') computer involvement. Jones, P.K. 1987`YThe relative effectiveness of computer-assisted remediation with male and female students2+Technological Horizons in Education Journal3  61-63& Could not obtain: not reviewed.atics learning*$Mathematical Association of Victoria Victoria, Australia,&Mathematics Attitudes and expectations|Questionnaires were given to about 2,600 students and about 100 teachers in grades 7-11 in Victoria (Australia) co-ed schools, and classroom observations and interviews were held with some students and teachers. Teachers believed that computer-competent students stood to gain most from computer use in mathematics learning, and they saw boys as more competent with the computer.<&P,D>Countryman, Jeri Kekelis, Linda Feldman, Alegra Spertus, Ellen 2002NHDeveloping a hardware and programming curriculum for middle school girlsSIGCSE Bulletin{342 44-47NHInterventions Curriculum Extracurricular programs Single-sex environmentPaper describes Techbridge, a three-year program that served about 200 middle- and high-school girls every year in a once-a-week after-school program. The curriculum contained hardware (opening computers and replacing floppy drives) and programming (LOGO and Stagecast, which is a visual programming language for creating animations for games or simulations). The single-sex environment was important to the girls.D=Craig, Annemieke Fisher, Julie Scollary, Angela Singh, Mohini 1998XQClosing the gap: Women education and information technology courses in Australia"Journal of Systems Software401 7-15Interventions Postsecondary/tertiary Role models and mentors Outreach Extracurricular programs Secondary/high school Curriculum Retention Career factors Enrollments Single-sex environmentArticle reports on various initiatives to promote, support, and retain female computing students at the postsecondary level in Australia. Nationwide, the Women in Computing group was established in 1991 to exchange information. One university introduced a bridge course. Once prior computer experience was held constant, single-sex and coed environments did not differ in how positive attitudes toward computers were.Craig, Dorothy Valcarcel 1999|uA league of their own: Gender practices among adolescents and teachers in a technology-enhanced learning environment0)Journal of Educational Technology systems284349-363VPExtracurricular programs Single-sex environment Telecommunications InterventionsIn a two-week summer computer camp for girls, it was found that in this single-sex environment girls displayed similar behaviors as male students do when engaging in technology-enhanced activities. (Abstract only)s(S2Campbell, N. Jo 1992lfEnrollment in computer courses by college students: Computer proficiency, attitudes, and attributions4-Journal of Research on Computing in Education251 61-7481Attitudes and expectations Postsecondary/tertiary195 U.S. college freshmen and sophomores enrolled in a career awareness class that was designed for students without clear career goals completed questionnaires about computer attributions (variant of Fennema scale) and computer attitudes. The data was correlated with the number of semesters of college computer courses taken by each student. Females viewed computers as a male domain less than males.Campbell, Katy 2000VOGender and educational technologies: Relational frameworks for learning design60Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia92131-149<6Culture Pedagogy Telecommunications Distance educationInstructional design in education uses technologies that reflect androcentric values. It needs to be changed to support women's ways of knowing.(!Campbell, Caty Varnhagen, Stanley 2002rkWhen faculty use instructional technologies: Using Clark's delivery model to understand gender differences,%Canadian Journal of Higher Education321G 31-56VPTeachers and faculty Pedagogy Telecommunications Distance education Outside U.S.A post-hoc survey of higher education faculty in Canada with a 21% return rate finds that female faculty may use different educational and informational technologies for different purposes than their male colleagues in terms of increased emphasis on a teaching role, their tendency to explore more relational approaches to teaching, and their experience with technology as female learners and teachers.(!Campbell, Patricia B. Sanders, Jo  2002\VChallenging the system: Assumptions and data behind the push for single-sex schooling Amanda Datnow Lea Hubbard\VGender in Policy and Practice: Perspectives on Single-Sex and Coeducational Schooling New York Routledge Falmer 31-46,&Single-sex environment Research reviewReviews the research behind common assumptions in favor of single-sex schooling. Bottom line: research is collectively inconsistent and inconclusive.iCampbell, Patricia B. 2004Personal communicationDecember 15, 2004*#Career factors Pedagogy ProgrammingIn a survey of adult career-changers into information technology and IT workers, it was found that workers were doing the same sort of work regardless of the educational path they took to get there. Women were found to have more encouragement into IT than men. Women were more likely to have learned programming from having someone show them, while men were more likely to learn by reading programming books. {- Gurer, Denise Gurer, Denise & Camp, Tracy Haag, Pamela Haag, ZsoltHackbarth, Steven L.Hackett, Dr. PeterZ0 Hafner, KatieHakkarainen, Kaip$!Hakkarainen, Kai & Palonen, Tuire Haliburton, William et al. Hall, Joan Hall, Laura Hall, Wendy Hanks, BrianHannafin, MichaelHanor, Joan H.pHanson, KatherineHardman, Margaret Hardy, V.Hardyck, CurtispHargreaves, David J. Harrell, W. Harris, D.Harris, K. Duncan and D.Harris, Linda J.p Harris, S.Harris, Teri A.pHarvey, Douglas M.Z0 Harvey, T.J.Harvey, T.J. & Wilson, B.Hashim, Hajah Rugayah Hj.40Hashim, Hajah Rugayah Hj. & Mustapha, Wan Narita Hassoun, Soha Hassoun, Soha & Bana, Soheila Hattie, John$!Hattie, John & Fitzgerald, DonaldHawamdeh, Suliman Hawkins, JanHawthorne, Susanp Hazen, MikeHeafner, Tina L.p Heal, LindaHearn, James C.p$Hearn, James C. & Olzak, SusanX Hearne, D.J.Hearne, D.J. & Martin, B. Heber, EttaHellinger, Teresa Layton Henwood, Flis85Henwood, Flis; Plumeridge, Sarah & Stepulevage, Linda Herbert, G.Herring, SusanpHerring, Susan C.84Herring, Susan; Martinson, Anna & Scheckler, RebeccaHess, Robert D.p$!Hess, Robert D. & Miura, Irene T.Hewitt, Nancy M.pHickling-Hudson, Anne$!Higher Education Policy Institute Hill, Fiona Hill, Justin Hirt, Joan B.82Hirt, Joan B.; Murray, James H. & McBee, Janice K.`Hoadley, Christopher M.Hodes, Carol L.pHoffman, Charlene M. Holsey, LillaHolzberg, Carol S.Z0Honey, Margaretp`]Honey, Margaret; Moeller, Babette; Brunner, Cornelia; Bennett, Peggy Clements; & Hawkins, Jan Houle, PhilipHoutz, Lynne E.p Howell, Kathy Hoyles, Celia Hsi, Sherry(%Hsi, Sherry & Hoadley, Christopher M. Hsu, DavidHuang, Shwu-Yong L.0 Hubbard, Amanda Datnow & Lea Hubbard, LeaHuber, Brad R.p("Huber, Brad R. & Scaglion, RichardY,&Huber, Brad R. & Schofield, Janet Ward Huff, Charles Huff, Charles & Cooper, JoelHuff, Charles W.p82Huff, Charles W.; Fleming, John H.; & Cooper, Joel7 Huff, ChuckHughes, MartinpD@Hughes, Martin; Brackenridge, Ann; Bibby, Alan & Greenhough, PamNHumphreys, Sheila("Humphreys, Sheila & Spertus, EllenY Huyer, Sophia Idrus, R.M.Idrus, Rozman M.p0-Information Technology Association of America Inkpen, KoriInkpen, Kori; Upitis, Rena; Klawe, Maria; Lawry, Joan; Anderson, Ann; Ndunda, Mutindi; Sedighian, Kamran; Leroux, Steve; & Hsu, David("Institute, Higher Education PolicyY("International, Women in TechnologyYInzlicht, Michael(#Inzlicht, Michael & Ben-Zeev, Talia Irani, Lilly Irby, Janice Koch & Beverly Irwin, LeslieJackson, SylviapJacobsdottir, Solveig@;Jacobsdottir, Solveig; Krey, Cynthia L. & Sales, Gregory C.#Jacobson, Frances F.Jagacinski, Carolyn M.@=Jagacinski, Carolyn M.; LeBold, William K.& Salvendy, GavrielJakobsdottir, SolveigJarrett, KarenpJenkins, Edgar W.Jenkins, Henryp Jenkins, TonyJennings, Susan Evans4/Jennings, Susan Evans & Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J.Jenson, Jenniferp85Jenson, Jennifer; de Castell, Suzanne; & Bryson, MaryJepson, Andreap Jepson, Andrea & Perl, TeriJessup, Elizabeth R.(%Jessup, Elizabeth R. & Sumner, TamaraJindal, Nishchint(%Joan Bliss, Roger Saljo, & Paul Light@;Jocobsdottir, Solveig; Krey, Cynthia L. & Sales, Gregory C.#Johnson, Carole Schulte0*Johnson, Carole Schulte & Swoope, Karen F.^ Johnson, David W.Johnson, Deborah G.0,&Johnson, Deborah G. & Miller, Keith W.Johnson, James P.Johnson, Robert T.Z0@:Johnson, Robert T.; Johnson, David W.; & Stanne, Mary Beth"#Johnson, Roger T.Joiner, RichardpD?Joiner, Richard; Messer, David; Littleton, Karen; & Light, PaulN Jones, Anna Jones, P.K. Jones, Trudi$!Jones, Trudi & Clarke, Valerie A. Joost, Lowyck Ju, Mi-KyungD>Judith Whyte, Rosemary Deem, Lesley Kant & Maureen CruickshankNkkkjjjjjjrh JK6ddj)h=cZ?(=rr^oo oo5 "ggQgbV;LfH;BLNreh RRRRRRRRRRR=FoGR\ac!QGg6+D<A6eZ[;?' S=]5Ke8;;=(3ZZ %((*77[[?=w]V!))**56CT\ RR777ZZO=11w"&E\Fj((((Vk 72GG ,>mBorgo, Suzanne Lavon 1993d^Ideology and science: An interpretive analysis of research on gender, computers and educationDepartment of Education University of Virginia 191Dr. Peter HackettPh.D. dissertationVPExtracurricular programs Research review Attitudes and expectations Use patternstmResearch review on computer equity, particularly in out-of-school activities, interest, and use vs. attitude.Boudria, Theodore J. 2002LEImplementing a project-based technology program for high school women82Community College Journal of Research and Practice26709-722B;High school learning & achievement Extracurricular programsThe Women in Technology (WIT) program, based at Bristol Community College in Fall River MA, included field trips to colleges and businesses, workshops on leadership and team building skills, shadowing TI women, attending a summer engineering and technology camp, and an 8-month project-based learning experience at TI. 65% of the 1997-98 graduates went to college in an engineering or CS major.& Bourque, Susan C. Warren, Kay B. 1987*#Technology, gender, and developmentDaedalus 1164173-197CultureSchools are unlikely to achieve gender equity in technology without radical institutional change, since both schools and technology are male-dominated cultures.4-Bradshaw, Jackie Clegg, Sue Trayhurn, Deborah 1995`YAn investigation into gender bias in educational software used in English primary schoolsGender and Education7424167-174.(Software Outside U.S. Elementary/primaryVery interesting experiment. 200 5- & 6-year-olds played two educational software games. They were asked about androgynous figures 3 times: 1st at first contact, 2nd when the interviewer asked if a figure was a boy or a girl, and 3rd when the interviewer asked if the kid might reconsider the gender assignment of the figure. First-time identifications were overwhelmingly male. Second time still very male but girls were somewhat more likely to say the figure was a girl. Third time nearly half the kids were willing to reconsider gender assignments. Conclusion: teacher interventions can be effective in helping girls achieve female identifications with computer software.a"Brady, Holly Slesnick, Twila 1985(!Girls don't like fluffware either"Classroom Computer Learning 20-28kApril/May 1985Software&"Girl" software is stereotyped.d{XSchofield, Janet Ward 1995&Computers and Classroom Culture New York Cambridge University PresszRole models and mentors Curriculum Culture Classroom interactions Mathematics Experience Secondary/high school ProgrammingIn her chapter "Girls and computer science: Fitting in, fighting back, and fleeing" (pp. 164-189) she explores why high school girls she observed tended not to enroll in advanced computer classes and what the environment was like for those who did. She cites a lack of female role models, location of the courses in the math department, an exclusive curricular focus on programming, stereotyped course materials, male-oriented teaching examples, and lower prior computer experience for girls. In an advanced computer class, girls were excluded and subject to isolation, teasing, taunting, and even outright sexual harassment, which negatively affected their comfort and sense of belonging."Schott, Gareth Selwyn, Neil  2000HBExamining the "male, antisocial" stereotype of high computer users0)Journal of Educational Computing Research233291-303JDStereotypes and bias Use patterns Secondary/high school Outside U.S.The authors studied 117 12th graders in two comprehensive schools in the UK, half male and half female. They took a survey on home and school computer use, attitudes toward ICT, and social competence (= social acceptance, close friendship, and self-worth). Students were evenly divided by sex in terms of computer use level. High computer use for both boys and girls correlated with high social competence, but low computer users of both sexes also scored high in social competence. In focus groups, low ICT level students stereotyped high-level users negatively, which may have caused them to avoid the computer. The image of the antisocial male nerd as a discouraging factor for girls therefore is not borne out, and contrary to much other research neither was there a difference in computer use level. However, the stereotype remains and may cause computer avoidance among girls and boys.Schubert, Jane G.4 1986("Gender equity in computer learningTheory into Practice25267-275& Could not obtain: not reviewed. tY  Tarlin, Ellen Taylor, H.Taylor, Harriet G.Z0,'Taylor, Harriet G. & Mounfield, Luegina Taylor, Roger Teague, J. Teague, JoyTeh, George P.L.p(#Teh, George P.L. & Fraser, Barry J. Temple, Linda$Temple, Linda & Lips, Hilary M.hTescione, SusanpTescione, Susan T.Z0Therrien, DenispThomas, BecklypThomborson, Clark Thomson, K.Thurston, Linda P.Z0 Tierney, K.Tillberg, Heather K.,)Tillberg, Heather K. & Cohoon, J. McGrathTischhauser, Marsha0 Todman, JohnTorkzadeh, Rezap4/Torkzadeh, Reza; Pflughoeft, Kurt & Hall, Laura Townsend, Gloria ChildressTrauth, Eileen M.Travis, Cheryl B.Trayhurn, Deborah Treu, Kevin Treu, Kevin & Skinner, AlishaTsai, Meng-JungpTucker, JenniferpTurkle, SherrypTurner, HeatherpTurner, Sandra V.84Turner, Sandra V.; Bernt, Phyllis W. & Pecora, Norma Twing, Jon S. UK, e-skillsUnderwood, Geoffrey0,'Underwood, Geoffrey & Jindal, Nishchint@:Underwood, Geoffrey; McCaffrey, Michelle & Underwood, Jean"#Underwood, Jeanp Upitis, Rena Uzzi, BrianVale, Colleen M.p(#Vale, Colleen M. & Leder, Gilah C.Valian, Virginiapvan Braak, Johan P.0Varnhagen, StanleyZ0Vasil, L. et al.p0*Vasil, Latika; Hesketh, Beryl & Podd, John^ Vasquez, Melbap Vegso, JayVenter, BernadineVispoel, Walter P.Z0Vohs, Kathleen D.4.VOICE: Vocational Options in Creating Equality Volk, KenVolk, Ken & Holsey, LillaVolman, Moniquep$ Volman, Monique & Eck, Edith van Walker, Ellen Walker, Ellen & Roger, SusanWallace, Andrew R.Z0,)Wallace, Andrew R. & Sinclair, Kenneth E. Wang, M.Ware, Mary Catherine0*Ware, Mary Catherine & Stuck, Mary Frances^ Warren, Kay B.p Warren-SamsWasburn, Mara H.p(#Wasburn, Mara H. & Miller, Susan G. Watkins-Malek, Michelle A.Watson, J. AllenpWeaver, Kimberlee D. Weil, M.Weil, M. & Rosen, L.D.Weinman, Janicep$Weinman, Janice & Haag, PamelazWeise, Gina M.pWelch, DorothypWelch, Wayne W.pWelty, Kennethp Werner, LindaWerner, Linda L.p0-Werner, Linda L.; Denner, Jill & Bean, StevenXTWerner, Linda L; Hanks, Brian; McDowell, Harlie; Bullock, Heather; & Fernald, Julian4/Werner, Linda; McDowell, Charlie & Hanks, BrianWest, Margaretp West, Margaret & Ross, SusanWhitley, Bernard E.0Whitley, Bernard E., JrWhitley, Bernard E., Jr.Whitley, Bernard E.. Jr. Whyte, JudithWidmer, Constance Wilder, Gita0*Wilder, Gita; Mackie, Diane & Cooper, Joel^ Williams, R. AnnpWilliams, Richard L. Williams, S.$Williams, S. & Rosenwasser, S.!Williams, Sue W.pWilliams, Sue Winkle4/Williams, Sue Winkle & Ogletree, Shirley MatileTNWilliams, Sue Winkle; Ogletree, Shirley M.; Woodburn, William; & Raffeld, Paul Wilson, B.Wilson, Richardp Wilson, T.Wolf, Elizabethp Wolfe, Joanna(#Wolfe, Joanna & Alexander, Kara PoeWolfe, Leslie R.p84Women and Minorities in Information Technology ForumL$!Women in Technology International,)Women, American Association of University0+Women, Nebraska Commission on the Status of Wood, PeterWoodburn, WilliamWoodrow, JanicepWoodrow, Janice E.J. Wright, R. Wu, Alice Wu, Yi-Kuo Wu, Yi-Kuo & Morgan, Michael Wyatt, Nancy Wyatt, SallyYang, Chang-KookpYelland, NicolapYeloushan, Kathleen0Young, Betty J.pYoung, Shannonp Yuen, A.Yuen, A. & Ma, W.Zimitat, Craigp Zubrow, DavidZuga, Karen F.puter or synthetic voices; they also insisted that they were not guided by gender stereotypes in real life, either." To counteract gender bias, it would be easy to use female voices in software in stereotypically male subjects, or to have many voices with the majority female.$Nathan, Ronen & Baron, Lois J. 1995d^The effects of gender, program type, and content on elementary children's software preferences4-Journal of Research on Computing in Education273348-360 "Software Elementary/primaryXR62 4th grade children were given four software programs to use: two drill-and-practice (Word Attack Plus and Math Blaster Plus) and two tutorials (Grammar Gremlins and Mr. Math). There were no gender differences in choice of subject. Both girls and boys preferred Math Blaster to the others, so content trumped quality of program here.@9National Alliance for Women in Communications Industries, 1986>8Lifting the barriers to computer learning in our schools Fast Forward21JDBarriers Software Attitudes and expectations Mathematics Programming^WProgramming is an advanced course for brightest math students, usually male; software is geared to males and is violent; boys are more aggressive in demanding computer time; computer expertise provides more status for boys than girls; and girls are conditioned to perceive programming as too difficult and a field more easily mastered by boys. ,%National Coalition of Girls' Schools, 1998@9Girls & Technology: An Idea Book for Educators & Parents  Concord, MA Author64>8Pedagogy Interventions Telecommunications Career factors$Primarily teaching strategies."National Science Foundation, 1994XRWomen, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 1994 NSF 94-333Parents and home10th grade males are much likelier than females to say they talk to parents about science and technology issues. (P. 22, Figure 2-10)=)"College Entrance Examination Board2004 Colley1994V Colley1995cU Colley1997 Colley2003cxCollins-Jarvis1997> Collis1985T@ Collis1985T Collis1985c Collis1987V Collis1987? Collis1988TA Collis1988TB Collis1990TD Colman1996uColville1994U Comber1997TMUNCongressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science2000 Conlon1994; Cook2001> Cooper1984$ Cooper1985C Cooper1986 Cooper1987 Cooper1989: Cooper1990h% Cooper1990 Cooper1991 Cooper19922 Cooper1996 Cooper2003D Corston1996 Cotten2004E-&Council of Chief State School Officers1984, Countryman2002 Countryman2004 Craig1998< Craig1999Crawford1992F Creamer2004 Crombie1999& Crowley2000 Cuban1998 Culley1986 Culley1988(j Culley1993 Culley1998VP Cummins1989E Cuny1995G Cuny2000;H Currell1990 Curry1986 D'Amico1995 Dain1988 Dain1991 Daiute1992 Damarin1989 Dambrot1985Davidson1996WDavidson2002Davidson-Shivers2003nI Davies2000T Davies2000c de Castell1995 de Castell1996 de Castell1998  de Castell2003 DeKoven1998 Demetrulias1988 Deng1999 Denner2004J Denner2005T DeRemer1990= Dickhauser2003Donitsa-Schmidt1995K Dorman1998TU Dorn1997sL Dougherty1999N Drash2000Driehaus1985ODryburgh2000 Dugdale1998mDurndell1987Durndell1988Durndell1990Durndell1990Durndell1990Durndell1991lDurndell1991Durndell1993YDurndell1995Durndell1997Durndell1997 Durndell2000  Dyck19946 e-skills UKn.d.k Eachus2002 Eastman1987 Eastman1995 Eccles19833 Eccles19855 Eccles1992 Eccles2005s Eck2001 Edwards1990* Edwards1992_ Eisenberg1997 Elen1997` Elkjaer1992* ENWISE2004fEstrella2006W Etzkowitz1992 Evans1996, Feldman2002 Ferguson-Pabst2003N Fernald2005 Ferrari2003 Fetler1985a Fiore1999f Fish19864g Fisher1997 Fisher1997b Fisher1998 Fisher1998U Fisher1999 Fisher2000 Fisher20004 Fisher2002h Fisher2002 Fishern.d. Fishern.d. Fishern.d. Fishern.d. Fitzgerald1987 Fitzpatrick2000 Fleetwood1989 Fleming1992Fletcher-Flinn1996' Forgasz2003c Forsyth1989F Francioni19982 Francioni2002 Francis1994 Francis1996 Fraser1995Freedman1989 Freeman20043 Frieze2002h- Frieze2005 Furger19981 Gabbert2002 Gale19947 Galpin2002h> Galpin2003 Gardner1986 Garver19855| Garvin-Doxas2003`i Gaston2001d Gatta2001 Gelpi1998` Gerver1989 Gifford1999! Gilbert2003e Gilbert2004 Girl Scoutsn.d.'!Girl Scouts Hornets' Nest Counciln.d.y Glass1988 Glissov1988 Glissov1990 Glissov1990n Glissov1994Y Glissov1995f Goode2006 Goodfellow1996 Gordon1989 Gordon20011L Grant1986 Graves1999 Greber1990Z Green1997  Greenfield1995 Greenhough19888Gressard1987Gressard1987 Griffiths1989 Groppe1996f Gross1986Groundwater-Smith1992 Grundy20007 Gulardo1984 Gunn2002? Gunn2003A Gupta2000 Gurer1995G Gurer1998H Gurer1998B Gurer2002 Haag1999 Haag2000q Hackbarth2001s Hafner1994t Hafner1998r Hafner1999I Hakkarainen2003o Haliburton1998C Hall1986: Hall1990 Hall1991 Hall1999t Hanks2004N Hanks2005Hannafin1987u Hanor1998v Hanson1997 Hardman2000 Hardy1994 Hardyck1988U Hargreaves1997 Harrell1998 Harris1983 Harris1994J Harris1999 Harvey1985c Harvey2002K Hashim2004_ Hassoun2001 Hattie1987RHawamdeh1999w Hawkins1984 Hawkins1991X Hazen2000 Heafner2001 Heafner2004L Heal1999 Hearn1981 Hearne1989 Heber2004 Heber2005 Hellinger1985 Henwood1999% Henwood2000{ Herring1992| Herring1999x Herring2000z Herring2002 Hess1983y Hess1985 Hewitt1997Hickling-Hudson1992'!Higher Education Policy Institute2001 Hill1995 Hill1995 Hirt20000c de Castell1995 de Castell1996 de Castell1998 DeKoven1998J Denner2005T DeRemer1990= Dickhauser2003K Dorman1998TU Dorn1997sL Dougherty1999N Drash2000ODryburgh2000 Dugdale1998mDurndell1987Durndell1990Durndell1990Durndell1991lDurndell1991Durndell1993YDurndell1995Durndell1997Durndell1997 Durndell2000  Dyck19946 e-skills UKn.d.k Eachus2002 Eastman1987 Eastman1995 Eccles2005s Edwards1990* Edwards1992_ Eisenberg1997` Elkjaer1992* ENWISE2004fEstrella2006W Etzkowitz1992 Evans1996, Feldman2002 Ferguson-Pabst2003 Fetler1985a Fiore1999f Fish19864g Fisher1997b Fisher1998 Fisher19984 Fisher2002h Fitzgerald1987 Fitzpatrick2000 Fleming1992Fletcher-Flinn1996' Forgasz2003c Forsyth1989F Francioni19982 Francioni2002 Francis1994 Francis1996Freedman1989 Freeman20043 Frieze2002h- Frieze2005 Furger19981 Gabbert2002 Gale19947 Galpin2002h> Galpin2003 Gardner1986 Garver19855| Garvin-Doxas2003`i Gaston2001d Gatta2001` Gerver1989! Gilbert2003e Gilbert2004 Girl Scoutsn.d.'!Girl Scouts Hornets' Nest Counciln.d.y Glass1988 Glissov1990n Glissov1994Y Glissov1995f Goode2006 Goodfellow1996L Grant1986 Graves1999 Greenhough19888Gressard1987 Griffiths1989f Gross1986Groundwater-Smith1992 Grundy20007 Gulardo1984 Gunn2002? Gunn2003A Gupta2000 Gurer1995G Gurer1998H Gurer1998B Gurer2002 Haag2000q Hackbarth2001s Hafner1994t Hafner1998r Hafner1999I Hakkarainen2003o Haliburton1998C Hall1986: Hall1990u Hanor1998v Hanson1997 Hardman2000 Hardy1994U Hargreaves1997 Harrell1998 Harris1983 Harris1994J Harris1999 Harvey1985cK Hashim2004_ Hassoun2001 Hattie1987w Hawkins1984 Hawkins1991L Heal1999 Hearn1981 Hearne1989 Henwood1999% Henwood2000{ Herring1992| Herring1999x Herring2000z Herring2002y Hess1985Hickling-Hudson1992'!Higher Education Policy Institute2001 Hill1995 Hill1995 Hirt2000|{vXSchofield, Janet Ward 1995&Computers and Classroom Culture New York Cambridge University PresszRole models and mentors Curriculum Culture Classroom interactions Mathematics Experience Secondary/high school ProgrammingIn her chapter "Girls and computer science: Fitting in, fighting back, and fleeing" (pp. 164-189) she explores why high school girls she observed tended not to enroll in advanced computer classes and what the environment was like for those who did. She cites a lack of female role models, location of the courses in the math department, an exclusive curricular focus on programming, stereotyped course materials, male-oriented teaching examples, and lower prior computer experience for girls. In an advanced computer class, girls were excluded and subject to isolation, teasing, taunting, and even outright sexual harassment, which negatively affected their comfort and sense of belonging.$Schott, Gareth & Selwyn, Neil 2000HBExamining the "male, antisocial" stereotype of high computer users0)Journal of Educational Computing Research233291-303(!Stereotypes and bias Use patternsThe authors studied 117 12th graders in two comprehensive schools in the UK, half male and half female. They took a survey on home and school computer use, attitudes toward ICT, and social competence (= social acceptance, close friendship, and self-worth). Students were evenly divided by sex in terms of computer use level. High computer use for both boys and girls correlated with high social competence, but low computer users of both sexes also scored high in social competence. In focus groups, low ICT level students stereotyped high-level users negatively, which may have caused them to avoid the computer. The image of the antisocial male nerd as a discouraging factor for girls therefore is not borne out, and contrary to much other research neither was there a difference in computer use level. However, the stereotype remains and may cause computer avoidance among girls and boys.Schubert, Jane G.4 1986("Gender equity in computer learningTheory into Practice25267-275& Could not obtain: not reviewed.*#Schumacher, P. & Morahan-Martin, J. 2001>8Gender, Internet, and computer attitudes and experiences"Computers in Human Behavior171 95-110\UUse patterns Programming Games Parents and home Attitudes and expectations ExperienceIncoming college students were studied in 1989, 1990 and 1997 for computer skills and attitudes, and the 1997 cohort also for Internet and e-mail skills and attitudes. In 1989 and 1990 and again in 1997, there was no significant gender difference in the percentage of males and females reporting school or home use of a computer or having taken a course that required computer use, although use levels increased dramatically over the two time periods. Earlier, males used the computer more than females for writing, graphics, games, and programming; later, games and programming remained mostly male. Males continued to spend considerably more time at the computer in 1997. In 1997 males reported more home computer ownership, experience, skill, and time spent with the Internet than females. Males reported higher comfort and confidence with the computer and with the Internet, and these attitudes correlated with skills and experience. Game-playing, which remains male-oriented, may enhance programming skills.N.LK=dJ$I"Davies, Vanessa Camp, Tracy  2000haWhere have women gone and will they be returning: Predictions of female involvement in computingCPSR Newsletter181PipelinelfPrediction of a large decline in the number of women with computer science degrees in the early 2000s.jdwww.cpsr.org/publications/newsletters/issues/2000/Winter/davies-camp.html retrieved January 26, 2004:4Davies, A.R. Klawe, M. Ng, M. Nyhus, C. Sullivan, H. 20002+Gender issues in computer science educationFifth Annual NISE Forum DetroitMay 2000Research review Career factors Software Programming Outreach Adults Role models and mentors Games Access Experience Elementary/primary Programming Attitudes and expectations Culture Interventions Secondary/high schoolReview of literature on gender and software, role models, access, experience, attitudes. Cites Koch et al. about computer in-groups (usually male) and out-groups (usually female) in elementary school and includes 7 points that must be addressed to reduce computer gender gaps. They report a survey of HS students on interest in school subjects, career choices, computer use in school and at home, and perceived computer proficiency. They also report on a project to involve children in grades 4-8 in educational computer games (the age when many children lose interest in math and science). They report on Virtual Family, a program created to allow children to program in Java with girl-friendly content. They report on various outreach activities to girls (classroom visits, workshops). Last they report on ARC (Alternate Routes to Computing), a career-change program for adults with bachelors degrees with special attention to females; problems and successes with ARC are noted.f_http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/nise/News_Activities/Forums/Klawepaper.htm, retrieved November 23 20043 Denner, Jill Werner, Linda 2005nhThe Girls Creating Games program: Strategies for engaging middle-school girls in information technology,&Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies2612,Middle school Role models and mentors GamesFour strategies were tried with 62 middle-school girls in an afterschool program and a summer camp: design an interactive computer game in Flash, pair programming, challenging stereotypes about who likes computers, and carrying out identity formation activities. No findings.s DeRemer, Mary 19902,The computer gender gap in elementary schoolComputers in the Schools6 3/4 39-494-Attitudes and expectations Elementary/primaryVO92 third and sixth graders took an attitude questionnaire. Girls scored significantly higher in computer liking at both grade levels, inconsistent with secondary level findings. Boys and girls had similar levels of confidence in their ability to learn with and about computers. Boys saw computers as a male domain but girls did not.Dickhauser, Oliver 2003`YGender differences in the choice of computer courses: Applying an expectancy-value model$Social Psychology of Education63173-189JDParents and home Enrollments Attitudes and expectations Outside U.S.TNIn two studies of children ages 10-16 in Germany, it was found that boys took computer courses more frequently than girls at the early high school level. It was found that computer course choice correlated with the value placed on computers and the expectation of success, and partly on perceived parental attitudes. (Abstract only)Dorman, Steve M. 1998$Technology and the gender gapJournal of School Health684K165-166@:Teacher education Role models and mentors Parents and home6/Ways to achieve gender equity in the classroom.` &Dougherty, Barbara Heal, Linda 1999Computer access: Key to success. A report on factors influencing Wisconsin technical college students' enrollment in computer information systems programs  Madison, WI 81Center on Education and Work, School of Education16 SeptemberG.'Parents and home Experience Mathematics`1,831 students in nine Wisconsin technical colleges who were expecting computer science degrees returned surveys. Females were less likely to have had computer experience prior to enrolling, especially having a computer at home in high school, and took less math in high school.l Drash, Wayne 2000RLAll girl, all tech: Nationwide program offers girls-only computer trainingCNN.comp July 11, 2000NGExtracurricular programs Role models and mentors Single-sex environmentNHDescription of eight all-girls summer computer camps across the country.T(a:Jv$Littleton, Karen Hoyles, Celia 2002.'The gendering of information technology Nicola Yelland Andee RubinHBGhosts in the Machine: Women's Voices in Research with Technology New York "Peter Lang Publishing, Inc. 3-32PICurriculum Single-sex environment Role models and mentors Research review&Three developmental stages in IT curriculum with respect to gender: Stage 1: noticing the absence of females imbalances in computer use in school and at home, attitudes toward computer use, computing ability (not an issue). Stage 2: changing female participation in IT activities role models, mixed-sex groupings (single sex not a long-term solution) and collaborative work. Stage 3: challenging the dominant paradigm of IT use in schools epistemological pluralism, embedding technology in the curriculum, challenging the paradigm.i2,Liu, Min Reed, W. Michael Phillips, Perry D. 1992rlTeacher education students and computers: Gender, major, prior computer experience, occurrence, and anxiety4-Journal of Research on Computing in Education244457-467{81Experience Programming Attitudes and expectations 914 teacher education students filled out questionnaires including questions on computer use. Males had slightly less prior computer experience than females but also less computer anxiety, which was correlated with programming experience (which males had more of).<6Lockheed, Marlaine E. Nielsen, Antonia Stone, Meredith 19830)Sex differences in microcomputer literacy.(National Educational Computer Conference  BaltimoreJune 6-8, 1983LFEarly work Extracurricular programs Secondary/high school Use patternsHigh school students in a computer literacy class were given a test at the first and final sessions. No initial gender differences in computer literacy were found, but boys gained more than girls by the post-test. Males reported more frequent use of computers and more positive attitudes than females. More males than females planned to take a computer course in the future. Out-of-school access was greater for boys than girls, and related to computer literacy gains for girls but not for boys. After-school use of the computer center was related to computer literacy gains for boys but not for girls. Computer game-playing was unrelated to computer literacy gains for everyone.oLockheed, Marlaine E. 1985@:Women, girls, and computers: A first look at the evidence(!Sex Roles: A Journal of Research134115-122 Early workMales used computers more than females for programming and game-playing, not more for other computer applications in which the computer was a tool. Cognitive effects were similar for both sexes.$Lovegrove, Gillian Hall, Wendy 1991Where are the girls now? &Gillian Lovegrove Barbara Segal+81Women into computing: Selected papers, 1988-1991 London Springer VerlaghbInterventions Critical mass Enrollments Curriculum Programming Postsecondary/tertiary Outside U.S.To counteract falling female enrollments in university computer science programs, they recommend that schools: make courseware interesting to girls, make computers an ordinary classroom resource in primary and secondary schools, and make it easier for girls to choose IT electives. Universities should hold open days for schoolchildren, consciously aimed at girls as well as boys, to make it clear that CS is more than programming; have role models, have an anti-discrimination policy, exercise care to retain enrolled women, put girls in the same tutorial groups (critical mass), and have tutors be unusually supportive. At the University of Southhampton the problem was too few female applicants, but those who did apply registered at the same rate as the males.<5Loyd, Brenda H. Loyd, Douglas E. Gressard, Clarice P. 1987d]Gender and computer experience as factors in the computer attitudes of middle school students"Journal of Early Adolescence71 13-19:3Attitudes and expectations Experience Middle school561 7th and 8th graders were studied. Greater computer experience was found to be significantly related to less anxiety and greater liking of computers. Female students exhibited more positive attitudes than male students toward the use of computers at lower computer-experience levels. (Nothing here on whether males had more experience than females, but other research establishes this.)Loyd, B.H. Loyd, D.E. 1988RLComputer attitudes: Differences by gender and amount of computer experience0)American Educational Research Association  New Orleansn$Could not obtain: no review.w*$Lupart, Judy L. Cannon, M. Elizabeth 2000`YGender differences in junior high school students towards future plans and career choicesRLCanadian Coalition of Women in Engineering, Sciences, Trades, and TechnologyXQAttitudes and expectations Career factors Use patterns Outside U.S. Middle school585 7th grade students in Calgary were surveyed about computer use and liking. There was no sex difference in home computer ownership or age when they started using computers. However, males liked computers significantly more than females and rated their skill level higher. Males spent significantly more time using computers. Game-playing came in first, especially for males; second for girls was homework uses but for boys it was surfing the Net. Asked about future career preferences, girls were most likely to choose artistic careers while boys were most likely to choose IT careers; 59% of the boys but 25% of the girls expressed interest in IT careers.JChttp://www.mun.ca/cwse/Lupart,Judy.pdf, retrieved December 26, 20040     % - 5  73! GB )kl 68!9$jd a     t ~Z    py[  .<xtK Z   V       J  R{  >     b   1 + } 4    xg HH W 3XI est ; (!Wasburn, Mara H. Miller, Susan G. 2005LFStill a chilly climate for women students in technology: A case study "Sue V. Rosser Mary Frank Fox"Women, Gender and Technology Urbana-Champaign "University of Illinois PressClassroom interactions Attitudes and expectations Teachers and faculty Teacher education Retention Enrollments Postsecondary/tertiary@As part of an effort to increase the essentially flat female enrollment in Technology at Purdue University despite an all-but-moribund Women in Technology student organization, the authors surveyed women enrolled. Women reported feeling isolated, that some professors did not treat men and women equally, that some of them did not feel comfortable going to professors for assistance outside the classroom, and that group projects with male students were often difficult. They felt that male students lacked respect for their ability, and that both male and female faculty needed education about issues concerning women students in mostly male classrooms. They saw role models and mentoring as critical. One woman wrote: "Don't worry so much about getting people to come to the school. Worry about what happens to us once we get here." Women proposed steps the group could take to improve their situation. Technology faculty and grad student instructors agreed to a series of workshops on gender equity.Weil, M. Rosen, L.D. 1995The psychological impact of technology from a global perspective: A study of technological sophistication and technophobia in university students from twenty-three countries"Computers in Human Behavior113 95-133<6Cross-cultural Attitudes and expectations Outside U.S.D=They found that men were significantly more anxious than women in Thailand, Italy, and Kenya, while women were more anxious than men in Israel and Hungary. There were significantly more male technophobes in Kenya and significantly more female technophobes in the USA, Hungary, and Australia. (cited in Galpin, 2002)2"Weinman, Janice Haag, Pamela 1999"Gender equity in cyberspaceEducational Leadership565 44-49 PolicyhbDiscussion of the AAUW Technology Commission work to assess gender issues in technology for girls.Welty, Kenneth 19964.Identifying women's perspectives on technology4.International Technology Education Association Phoenix, Arizona@:Career factors Stereotypes and bias Postsecondary/tertiary81Data was collected from 875 college students. Men described technology more than women in the context of work and associated it with ideas more than women. Women associated technology with computers and electronics more than men, and tended to equate technology with science more than men. Women also associated technology more with societal advancement than men did. In terms of careers, women tended to be interested in medical and communication technologies while men tended to be interested in automotive technology, computer technology, and automation.\f ,%Ogletree, Shirley M. Williams, Sue W.m 1990D=Sex and sex-typing effects on computer attitudes and aptitude(!Sex Roles: A Journal of Research23 11/12703-712B8Gender in the Secondary Curriculum: Balancing the Books London  Routledge 80-95Attitudes and expectations Access Single-sex environment Teachers and faculty Race, ethnicity, or SES Experience Aggression Research review Outside U.S.All students in Britain were required to take IT by the Educational Reform Act of 1988, and this chapter examines literature about computer equity before and after then to see if gender inequalities in IT have lessened. IT is not often enough integrated into the teaching of various subjects. Access remains mostly technologically based and male dominated. Computer faculty remain overwhelmingly male. Teachers believe that gender bias is a condition that is external to schooling. Single-sex groupings or classes are desirable to avoid boys' taking over the keyboard to "help" girls. Less privileged schools have less computer resources, and girls have less hands-on experience. Boys have and use home computers more than girls, and are more likely to have one in their own room, but when girls are given equal access they are equally enthusiastic. Computer confidence and competence rises with computer use, which is primarily gained at home, although there is some research about the importance of school computers.6/Ory, John C. Bullock, Cheryl Burnaska, Kristine 1997vpGender similarity in the use of and attitudes about ALN [asynchronous learning networks] in a university setting0)Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks1Z1" 39-51,%Telecommunications Distance education*60Surveys, course monitoring, and interviews were carried out to determine how male and female college students responded to ALN (in this case, computer conferencing and the Web as an instructional medium) as an educational strategy. Males and females did not differ in terms of use (access frequency) or postings. Social and instructional types of online interactions equalized over the year (initially, social was equal whle instructional favored females). Ease of use was also equal, although initially more males found the system easy to use. There was no significant difference in assessment of the experience, with both sexes reporting it as positive. Females reported a greater increase in their computer familiarity than males over the year. Overall, there were few differences between males and females.Osajima, April 20042,Email message about new video game for girlsDecember 21, 2004 Games Girls Inc. developed a video game for girls called "Team Up" in which girls team up to solve playground puzzles. "There are no guns, nobody dies, and girls can chose the racial/ethnic make up of their team members. there are even different body sizes represented."Palmer, Carolyn 198981New users in jeopardy on campus: What can we do?R Brown Online2 14-17 May@9Experience Race, ethnicity, or SES Postsecondary/tertiaryA study of 2,270 undergraduates at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign found that people of color had less computer experience than whites, and that in every racial/ethnic group females had less than males, with resulting educational inequities. VtpP&Jones, Trudi Clarke, Valerie A. 1995xqDiversity as a determinant of attitudes: A possible explanation of the apparent advantage of single-sex settings0)Journal of Educational Computing Research211w 51-64PISingle-sex environment Attitudes and expectations Experience Outside U.S.vHA231 15-year-old high school girls in Victoria, Australia in 3 single-sex (government, independent, and Catholic) and two coed (government and independent) schools were studied for computer attitudes. Girls from single-sex settings had more experience with computers and more positive attitudes than girls in coed settings. However, when computer experience was held constant, there was no effect of educational setting on computer attitudes. The strongest predictor of positive computer attitudes (affective, cognitive, and behavioral) was diversity of computing experience.("Jussim, Lee Eccles, Jacquelynne S. 1992RLTeacher expectations II: Construction and reflection of student achievement2,Journal of Personality and Social Psychology636947-961<5Teachers and faculty Stereotypes and bias Mathematicsw>8In an experiment involving teachers' expectations of 6th graders' math achievement, their expectations predicted student achievement beyond effects accounted for by previous achievement and motivation. Teachers expected boys to have more math talent and girls to work harder, but both perceptions are erroneous.Kadijevich, Djordje 2000HBGender differences in computer attitude among ninth-grade students0)Journal of Educational Computing Research222145-154.'Attitudes and expectations Outside U.S.Ninth grade students in Belgrade, Yugoslavia were surveyed about computer attitudes. Males had a more positive attitude than females, even when experience was controlled. However, when attitude was controlled there was no gender difference in experience. While males showed more interest in computers than females, this did not account for the gender difference in computer attitude.Kanter, Rosabeth Moss 1977& Men and Women of the Corporation New York  Basic Books\,&Retention Career factors Critical massPIThe classic work on what happens when there is a majority and a minority. ,%Kanter, Rosabeth Moss Stein, Barry A. 1993("A tale of "O": On being different  Melrose, MA~ Goodmeasure, Inc.SCritical mass Culture18-minute and 27-minute versions of videotape on the social dynamics of being an X, a member of a majority, and an O, a member of a minority. Highly recommended for professional development purposes. Kay, Robin 1990haUnderstanding gender differences in computer attitudes, aptitude, and use: An analysis of method[0)National Educational Computing Conference  Nashville, TN& Could not obtain: not reviewed. Kay, Robin H. 1992piUnderstanding gender differences in computer attitudes, aptitude, and use: An invitation to build theory4-Journal of Research on Computing in Education[252159-171,&Attitudes and expectations MethodologyThe author argues that a qualitative, contextual, developmental approach is better than a quantitative, approach to understand gender differences rather than merely identifying them. Kay, Robin 1992\VAn analysis of methods used to examine gender differences in computer-related behavior0)Journal of Educational Computing Research83277-290TNResearch review Attitudes and expectations Experience Use patterns Methodology!A research review of empirical methods used to collect data on gender differences in computer-related behavior attributes numerous instances of inconsistencies to methodology mistakes: 1) sample selection, 2) sample size, 3) scale development, 4) scale quality, 5) use of univariate and multivariate analyses, 6) regression analysis, 7) construct definition, 8) construct testing, and 9) presentation of results. Attitude: out of 98 studies, males had more positive attitudes in 48, females in 14, and similar in 36. Attitudes toward computers have been defined in at least 14 different ways. Aptitude (skill, abilities): males performed better than females in 15 of 32 studies, equal in 13, and females better in 5, with varied definitions. Use: Males more in 30 of 38 studies, 4 equal, and females more in 4. Definitions of use here varied from camp participation to computer ownership and others. "A detailed and comprehensive review of methods used to examine gender differences in attitudes and aptitude reveals that a number of procedural flaws significantly limit the consistency, validity and impact of many studies." (p. 278) "The principle [sic] constructs addressed in computer-behavior research are attitudes, aptitude, and use, yet there is no common definition of these terms." (p. 283)   V q    Kay, Robin H. 1993NHA critical evaluation of gender differences in computer-related behaviorComputers in the Schools94 81-93:3Attitudes and expectations Mathematics Outside U.S.647 preservice teachers (about 3/4 female) in Ontario, Canada were given assessments of computer attitude, computer ability, perceived control, computer use, math/science ability, and verbal skills. Males and females differed only with respect to ability to use computers and perceived control over computers, but these differences were almost entirely eliminated when math/science and verbal ability were controlled for. Math/science ability appears to be related to computer ability. n p Bowman, Mary AnnpBrackenridge, AnnBradley, KarenpBradshaw, Jackiep41Bradshaw, Jackie; Clegg, Sue; & Trayhurn, Deborah Brady, Holly$Brady, Holly & Slesnick, TwilaӦ Bragg, L.Brandenburg, Christine L. Brave, ScottBravo, Melinda J.@{6%|"Hearn, James C. Olzak, Susan 1981TNThe role of college major departments in the reproduction of sexual inequalitySociology of Education543195-205XQCareer factors Enrollments Role models and mentors Retention Teachers and facultyhaCollege students in the US were surveyed about their choice of major. Males were more likely to choose unsupportive departments providing high status rewards, whereas women exhibited the opposite pattern. For women not making the standard choices, supportive interactions with individual faculty members appeared critical to their satisfaction levels.sHearne, D.J. Martin, B. 1989"Computer equity in educationEducational Technology? 47-51& Could not obtain: not reviewed. Henwood, Flis 1999HBExceptional women? Gender and technology in U.K. higher education*$IEEE Technology and Society Magazine187 21-27"Stereotypes and bias Culture("A toy ad for technological toys is analyzed for gender-stereotyped messages about technology. A "liberal" interpretation of technology is that it is neutral: women and girls lack the skills and attitudes that men and boys have and need to catch up the deficit model. In this account, neither technology nor gender is questioned. In contrast, a constructivist approach understands technology as a social and cultural construct, a reflection of social relations and cultural norms dominant in society as it exists. In a course for computer science majors, the few women saw themselves (and were seen by the men) as exceptional, "and therefore, by implication, different from the majority of women, who are thereby rendered incompetent and outsiders in technological culture." (p. 24) Seeing technical women as exceptional keeps women marginalized in technology. "[T]he task of changing the outcomes of women's education in computer technologies is more complicated than simply teaching them how to use computers. ... It is also necessary to change how the women (and the men around them) understand and talk about the presence and competence of women." (p. 25) In order to move beyond the dualism of male/female, skilled/incompetent, good/bad, we must understand how gender is constructed in technology.82Henwood, Flis Plumeridge, Sarah Stepulevage, Linda 2000JDA tale of two cultures? Gender and inequality in computer education 60Sally Wyatt Flis Henwood Nod Miller Peter SenkerF@Technology and In/equality: Questioning the Information Society London  Routledge111-128+>7Attitudes and expectations Learning styles Outside U.S.|XQA small (10) and partial sample of women in the UK taking a traditional computer science course and an interdisciplinary, contextual CS course were studied. Women in the traditional course did as well as the men in terms of percentage passing the course and average grade, while women in the interdisciplinary course were twice as likely as men to pass the course and got a significantly higher average grade on the exam. Nevertheless, both groups of women underestimated their computer competence relative to obvious evidence to the contrary and in relation to equally competent men. "Gender is thus constructed, in relation to technology and technical skills, in oppostional terms, so that the acquisition of technical skills by women is perceived by many as a threat to the masculinity of men and to gender order more generally." (pp. 114-115) Herring, Susan C. 1992HBGender and participation in computer-mediated linguistic discourseED345552TelecommunicationsThe study examined patterns of participation in a linguistics listserv and found that women respond to adversarial exchanges by limiting their participation. Herring, Susan C.+ 1999:4The rhetorical dynamics of gender harassment on-lineEJ599669TelecommunicationsThe study analyzed the gender dynamics of two on-line groups, one a chat channel and another an academic listserv, and found harassment of female participants by male participants.)6L&%6$#^ Rifkin, Adam 1995>7Caltech CRPC outreach programs for minorities and women0)National Educational Computing Conference  BaltimoreERIC ED 392 427,%Interventions Race, ethnicity, or SESzThe Center for Research on Parallel Computation at Caltech held four outreach programs for minority males and females: a two-day on-campus event for high school students, a five-day workshop for minority high school teachers, a workshop at a computing conference, and summer research projects for female college juniors and seniors. No information about outcomes is presented. Ring, Geoff 1991:4Student reactions to courseware: Gender differences0)British Journal of Educational Technology223210-21560Software Attitudes and expectations Outside U.S.Australian students ages 5 to 13 rated courseware packages. Male students had greater confidence in their ability to use the courseware as an effective learning tool than female students.<5Roberts, Eric S.; Kassianidou, Marina; & Irani, Lilly 2002,%Encouraging women in computer sciencetSIGCSE Bulletin342 84-88haInterventions Barriers Software Culture Experience Role models and mentors Postsecondary/tertiaryBarriers to women the same as engineering, plus a few specific to CS: prior computer experience is lower for women, software incorporates gender biases, male culture. Strategies adopted at Stanford to encourage women in CS: creation of a "wide-audience" intro course that offers role models for women, providing role models at different levels, three bridge programs to CS and engineering (including a 2.5-week summer course for sophomores, "The Intellectual Excitement of Computer Science," with 50% female enrollment), research opportunities for students and faculty mentors, the encouragement of student research on gender in computing, and others in the making.,&Robinson-Staveley, Kris & Cooper, Joel 1990tmMere presence, gender, and reactions to computers: Studying human-computer interaction in the social context0)Journal of Experimental Social Psychology26168-183JDContext Experience Attitudes and expectations Postsecondary/tertiaryThe effects of mere presence, expectations for success, gender, and level of computer experience on reactions to computers were examined. In Study 1, 80 male and female college students completed a difficult computer task and a series of questionnaires in the presence or absence of another person. For women with little previous computer experience, those who worked in the presence of a same-sex confederate performed much less well, expressed more negative attitudes toward computers, and reported higher anxiety than did women who worked alone. For men, mere presence had the opposite effect. Performance and reactions of subjects high in computer experience were unaffected by gender or mere presence. In Study 2, 80 low-experience experience students were included. Expectations for success were manipulated and interacted with the presence of a same-sex confederate, resulting in facilitation for positive expectancy subjects and impairment for negative expectancy subjects, relative to those working alone. Men and women were equally affected by the presence of another person. Gender differences in expectations for success seem to have determined whether mere presence resulted in facilitation or impairment effects. "It is clear that [women's] inherent expectations [of success] can not always be easily changed, but it is also clear than when they are changed, the result is improvement in performance, anxiety, and attitude." (p. 181),%Robst, John; Russo, Dean & Keil, Jack 1996^XFemale role models: The effect of of gender composition of faculty on student retention,&Association for Institutional Research  AlbuquerqueERIC ED 397 754`YRole models and mentors Teachers and faculty Mathematics Retention Postsecondary/tertiaryThis study examined whether female college freshmen over four years at SUNY-Binghamton in science, math and computer classes had higher first-year retention rates (= return for the sophomore year) when a greater percentage of their classes were taught by female faculty (not teaching or lab assistants). A significant positive relationship was found between retention and the percentage of science, math and computer science courses taken by female students that were taught by women, although not for women taking other courses and not for men. "Retention rates [for women in math, science and technology] increase as the percentage of credits taken from female faculty increase." (p. 10)60Rosenthal, Nina Ribak & Demetrulias, Diana Mayer 19880*Assessing gender bias in computer softwareComputers in the Schools5 1/2153-163$Software Stereotypes and biasxrResearchers evaluated software for children and saw no examples of blatant sexism but many examples of subtle sexism (e.g. animals dressed in sex-typed clothes doing sex-stereotyped things). Teacher education students, nearly all female, evaluated software using three different evaluation forms, one of which asked detailed questions about gender issues in software and the other two asked one general question (e.g. "Is the content free of race, ethnic, sex, and other stereotypes?" No programs were identified as sexist using the general-question evaluation form but three were using the gender-specific evaluation form.Rothstein, Edward 1997RKGirl software: A fantasy world stressing advice and the anxiety of romanceNew York Times New York February 17*#Software Games Stereotypes and bias{b\Discusses software for girls: themes of appearance, romance, personality, charm, and friends. "These games take little notice of any of the arguments of recent decades that the differences between girls and boys are socially conditioned and environmentally created. Girl software insists on those differences, and the market provides support."04rShashaani, Lily  1997NGGender differences in computer attitudes and use among college students0)Journal of Educational Computing Research161 37-51hbAttitudes and expectations Experience Parents and home Stereotypes and bias Postsecondary/tertiaryNHThe computer attitudes and experience of 202 college students enrolled in a required introductory CS course were surveyed at the beginning and end of the semester. Women scored lower than men in liking to learn about computers, enjoying working with computers, considering computers exciting, and confidence in dealing with computers. There was no difference in the perceived usefulness of computers. Men had more experience with computers than women. Most home computers owners were male. Both sexes agreed that parents, especially fathers, believed that computers are more appropriate for males than females. Prior computer experience correlated with positive attitudes. Female students who perceived their parents believing that computers were more appropriate for males were less interested in computers and had lower confidence in their computer ability than other female students. By the end of the semester, both male and female students had more positive computer attitudes. Despite females' lower computer confidence, they performed much better and got higher grades than males.&Shashaani, Lily Khalili, Ashmad 2001rkGender and computers: Similarities and differences in Iranian college students' attitudes toward computersComputers and Educationa37 3-4363-375}vpAttitudes and expectations Outside U.S. Experience Parents and home Stereotypes and bias Race, ethnicity, or SESo375 Iranian students majoring in science, social science or engineering at two universities in Tehran were surveyed in 2000 about computer attitudes. The sexes were equal on computer liking. In terms of stereotypes, females agreed strongly that both sexes are equally competent computer users; males still perceived computers as a male field. Nevertheless, females expressed low self-confidence in their own computer abilitiies. More males reported parental encouragement to study computers. Peers' opinions supported gender equality in computing but did not correlate with subjects' attitudes. Female students who perceived that their mothers and fathers considered computers more appropriate for males were less confident in their ability. Fathers' stereotyped ideas about computer users strongly increased sons' and daughters' own stereotypes, especially sons. Parental encouragement correlated with positive student attitudes. SES: Parental education had a stronger effect on students' attitudes than parental occupations, and more so for females than males. The higher the parents' educational level, the greater their daughters' interest in computers. Higher-status occupations and higher education levels of parents were associated with less gender stereotyping of computers. Conclusion: desire for computer learning in Iran is not gender-specific, as opposed to the U.S.      Shaw, Graham Marlow, Nigel 1999The role of student learning styles, gender, attitutdes, and perceptions on information and communication techology assisted learningComputers and Education33223-23481Attitudes and expectations Postsecondary/tertiary 99 undergraduate students were studied for the effect of learning styles (activist, reflector, theorist, or pragmatist) on attitudes toward ICT. No significant difference in learning style was found between the sexes. Experience was correlated with positive computer attitudes. Students whose learning style was "theorist" (people who attempt to fit their observations into a logical model or theory, and learn best when required to understand complex problems) tended to have the most negative computer attitudes.s Sherman, Richard C. et al. 2000NHThe Internet gender gap among college students: Forgotten but not gone?"CyberPsychology and Behavior5885-894& Could not obtain: not reviewed.ale identity was salient they performed worst; and when neither identity was salient (= control group) they performed in the middle.D>Siann, Gerda; Durndell, Alan; Mcleod, Hamish; & Glissov, Peter 1988NHStereotyping in relation to the gender gap in participation in computingEducational Research302 98-1036/Stereotypes and bias Attitudes and expectationsrl928 university students in Edinburgh were randomly assigned questionnaires describing a female computer scientist, with the other half getting an otherwise identical male computer scientist. On eight of the attributes (more self-reliant, fun to be with, independent, approachable, likeable, sympathetic, well-adjusted, popular, and less introverted), Karen was rated more positively than Kevin (higher in introverted and serious), an effect held respective of the sex of the rater or the subject studied by the rater. "Negative stereotyping of female computer scientists is becoming increasingly less likely." (p. 98) $FD k z.(King, John Bond, Trevor Blandford, Sonya 2002>8An investigation of computer anxiety by gender and grade"Computers in Human Behavior181 69-842+Attitudes and expectations Games Curriculum910 students in grades 7, 9, and 11 were studied to assess computer anxiety, with a focus on the test and measurement aspect. Overall they found males slighly more computer anxious than females. Females' anxiety levels were higher than males' in grade 7, about equal in grade 9, and lower in grade 11. Possible reasons: by grade 11 computers are used more for communications and less for games, become more common in the curriculum, and in their association with academics become less "cool" for males. "This could suggest a changeover period around grade 9 above which grade the females become measurably less anxious about using computers compared to males." (p. 79) Kirk, David 1992b\Gender issues in information technology as found in schools: Authentic/synthetic/fantastic?Educational Leadership324 28-31Research reviewHBReviews research in 3 categories: the computer gender gap doesn't really exist and has been fabricated (fantastic), it exists but is socially constructed (synthetic), or it exists and is innate (authentic). Because schools perpetuate biases of the past, they can have only minimal influence on change in gender patterns. Kirkman, C. 1993ngComputer experience and attitudes of 12-year-old students: Implications for the UK National Curriculum,%Journal of Computer Assisted Learning9 51-62d]Attitudes and expectations Use patterns Parents and home Race, ethnicity, or SES Outside U.S.JC12-year-old students in the UK were surveyed about computer use, attitude, SES (measured by newspapers in the home), and gender. Nearly twice as many boys than girls used computers at home, and for more hours/week. Home computer use had a stronger effect on girls' computer attitudes than boys'. Higher SES girls showed a more positive computer attitude than low SES girls, with middle SES in the middle; however, lower SES boys had more positive computer atttudes, with high next and middle last. For boys, the same pattern held for enthusiasm and time on the home computer.(!Kirkpatrick, Heather Cuban, Larry 1998Should be we worried? What the research says about gender differences in access, use, attitudes, and achievement with computersEducation and Computing384 56-61{Research review Experience Use patterns Access Age Extracurricular programs Parents and home Teachers and faculty Role models and mentors Culture Single-sex environment Interventions Mathematics When males' and females' experience and use patterns are held constant, their achievement and attitudes are similar from primary through higher education. However, "research shows clearly that males use computers more often, in more places, and for more purposes than do females; furthermore, these disparities increase with age." (p. 56) Males had more access to home computers and were more likely than females to learn how to use them at home. Since the 70's there have been about six times more male CS Ph.D.s than female. As age increases, so does use, confidence, and positive attitudes. Achievement differences correlate with types and amount of use, not inherent differences in preference or ability. Explanations of the gaps: Teachers and guidance counselors, parents, lack of role models, culturally a male enterprise, and association with math. Some researchers propose single-sex settings and structured after-school activities like those that worked in the 70's to improve girls' math achievement and attitudes. Kirkup, Gill 1992F?The social construction of computers: Hammers or harpsichords? Gill Kirkup L.S. Kellerw60Inventing Women: Science, Technology and Gender  Cambridge, UK  Polity Press81Single-sex environment Attitudes and expectations Cites Hughes et al. (1988): in some situations single-sex groupings of girls attempting a computing task perform worse than a mixed group since their lack of confidence can lead to mutual recrimination and failure. Don't have more info about the Hughes cite. Kirkup, G. 1995JDThe importance of gender as a category in open and distance learning\UPutting the Learner First: Learner-Centered Approaches in Open and Distance Learning  Cambridge, UKx& Could not obtain: not reviewed."Klawe, Maria Leveson, Nancy 1995,&Women in computing: Where are we now? Communications of the ACM381 29-35R.(Parents and home Experience Outside U.S.*$In New Zealand researchers found that girls were less likely to have home computers bought for them, and those who did have computers were more obliged than brothers were to share them with siblings. Also in N.Z., a study found that males had considerably more prior experience than females."Klawe, Maria Leveson, Nancy  2001Refreshing the nerds Communications of the ACM447P 67 ff.tmAdults Career factors Culture Attitudes and expectations Postsecondary/tertiary School programs Outside U.S. Describes a survey of high school students in Vancouver BC, which found that students associated nerdy characteristics with people who have computer careers: not very attractive. Describes the ARC project (Alternate Routes to Computing) that enables people with bachelors degrees in other fields to enter computer careers via a two-year program. The project especially targeted women, including those who had been out of the work frce for some time. More than half the students since its 1998 inception have been women.nKnupfer, Nancy Nelson 1997Gendered by designEducational Technology March/April\ March/April@:Stereotypes and bias Curriculum Culture Distance education}Article concerns the need for instructional designers in the technology area to get past stereotypes and be more gender-fair.:3Knupfer, Nancy Nelson Kramer, Kevin M. Pryor, Debra 1997TNGender equity on-line: Messages portrayed with and about the new technologies0)International Visual Literacy Association  Cheyenne, WY ERIC: ED 408994391-3994-VisionQuest: Journeys Toward Visual Literacy4-Telecommunications Stereotypes and bias MediaThey examined a sample of magazines and promotional materials about multimedia technology that were available to the general public and teachers, as well as television and Internet advertisements for technology. There were three times more male than female characters associated with the products being sold, especially in ads aimed at children and teenagers. Women were consistently portrayed as subservient, in the background, or not using the technology productively.Knupfer, Nancy Nelson 1997D>New technologies and gender equity: New bottles with old wine@9Association for Educational Communications and Technology Albuquerque, NM ERIC: ED 409843D>Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Presentations4-Media Stereotypes and bias TelecommunicationsThe paper discusses developing male and female stereotypes in technology advertisements; culture and groups; and gender stereotypes in print media, television, cyberspace, and ITV educational environments.Bb"National Science Foundation, 2004XRWomen, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering, 2004.  Arlington, VA 4-Division of Science Resources Statistics, NSF NSF #04-317Compendium of statistics on science and engineering, from the undergraduate level to employment. Contains information on gender, race/ethnicity, and disability. Appears annually at http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/wmpd/start.htm.2+ http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/wmpd/start.htm. 2+Nebraska Commission on the Status of Women, 20032+Nebraska girls and technology status report June@:Enrollments Programming Applications Secondary/high schoollfIn a statewide survey on high school computer course enrollment, boys outnumbered girls more than 2:1 in web design courses and more than 3:1 in more advanced technology courses, including programming and computer-aided design (CAD). They were only 6% of the students in the most advanced programming course. Enrollments were equal in applications courses.<5http://www.women.state.ne.us, retrieved July 14, 2005$Nelson, Lori, J. Cooper, Joel 1989LFSex role identity, attributional style, and attitudes toward computers(!Eastern Psychological Association Boston  ERIC 314 6584-Attitudes and expectations Elementary/primaryLEFifth graders were surveyed about attitudes and attribution about gender differences in computer use after computer and video game experience. Boys and girls were enthusiastic about using computers and had positive attitudes, but girls used computers less than boys and felt they had less computer ability. (Abstract only.).(!Nelson, Carol S. Watson, J. Allen 1991TMThe computer gender gap: Children's attitudes, performance and socialization0)Journal of Educational Technology Systems194345-353ngEarly work Parents and home Software Pedagogy Teachers and faculty Research review Mathematics BarriersAfter reviewing the research, it is noted that early work focused on the link with math. Other barriers include family influences, gender bias in software, and teachers' resistance to using computers and resulting negative attitude. The article lists 18 factors that go into explaining gender differences in computing, in four categories: attitudes and performance factors, family factors, software factors, and educational factors.s2+Nelson, Lori J. Weise, Gina M. Cooper, Joel{ 1991PJGetting started with computers: Experience, anxiety, and relational style"Computers in Human Behavior7185-202^XExperience Programming Games Retention Attitudes and expectations Postsecondary/tertiaryCollege students were surveyed at the beginning and end of the semester in various computer-related courses. Males had significantly more prior experience with programming and games, and reported more knowledge about computers. By the end of the semester, females reported an equal amount of general computer knowledge as compared to males. Females who dropped out reported more anxiety than females who stayed, but the reverse was true for males (those with more anxiety stayed). Females who dropped out perceived the computer to be like a machine more than females who stayed; again, the reverse was true for males. There was a correlation between programming experience and retention, favoring males. Neuman, Delia 1991Technology and equity ERIC DigestsERIC ED 339 400Software\UBrief summary on gender imbalances. Mentions limited hardware, stereotyped software.mation Technology for Teacher Education12215-229& Could not obtain: not reviewed.Grundy, FrancesP 2000<6Computer software: A clue to de-gendering technology?2+The Nature of Gender - The Gender of Nature  Kiel, Germany;Software CulturetmHardware and software are male preserves and discourage women from enrolling in and persisting in CS courses.f`http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/cs/staff/a.f.grundy/home/kielpaper.htm, retrieved December 10, 2004>ZR 0)Madison, Sandra Deng, Min Gifford, James 1999F?Creating gender equitable computer classrooms: A model projectERIC ED 432 237F@Extracurricular programs Secondary/high school Teacher educationtnProject FOCAL Point gave 7 high school computer teachers a two-week workshop on computer skills and gender equity for graduate credit, a one-week computer camp for high school girls in the second teacher week, mini-grant projects, a follow-up conference, and listservs for teachers and students. At the end of the two-week session, participants rated it positively. Mahony, Rhona 1997"Women at work, girls at play Ms.January/February 37-40bJanuary/February GamesVOAbout Girl Tech, headed by Janese Swanson, maker of electronic games for girls.hMakrakis, Vasilios 1992ZTCross-cultural comparison of gender differences toward computers in Japan and Sweden2,Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research364275-287^XAttitudes and expectations Cross-cultural Mathematics Outside U.S. Secondary/high school773 9th graders in Japan and Sweden were given a questionnaire. There was a significant main effect for country, with Swedish students having more gender-equitable attitudes and less association of computers with math or science. The country effect held more strongly for female than male students. Japanese females held stronger beliefs about the necessity for computers and interest in computers than Swedish females, perhaps reflecting Japan's role as a technological power. Japanese males and females were likelier to hold gender-stereotyped impressions than Swedish males and females. Swedish boys were likelier to hold gender stereotypical beliefs than Swedish girls. Both Japanese and Swedish boys held higher computer skill necessity attitudes than the girls. Japanese and especially Swedish boys had more interest in learning about computers than girls. Overall, there were relatively few gender differences among Japanese students and more among Swedish students. Culture and gender explained more of the difference in computer attitudes than computer ownership, peer influence, or teacher or parental encouragement. "[A] gender-biased society teaches girls to have gender stereotyped interests." (p. 285)Makrakis, Vasilios 1993NHGender and computing in schools in Japan: The "we can, I can't" paradoxComputers and Education202191-198XROutside U.S. Secondary/high school Attitudes and expectations Teachers and facultyNinth-grade Japanese students were given an attitude questionnaire. There were no significant gender differences in computer self-efficacy. However, there were for computer usefulness, prior experience, and teacher encouragement, all favoring males. Girls showed a distinct "I can't but we can" belief set, possibly related to the Japanese value on group as opposed to individual. For girls, computer usefulness most strongly predicted self-efficacy, while for boys it was occupational aspirations.(!Makrakis, Vasilios Sawada, Toshio 1996VOGender, computers and other school subjects among Japanese and Swedish studentsComputers and Education264225-231HBCross-cultural Attitudes and expectations Mathematics Outside U.S.LEAbout 1,000 9th graders from Tokyo and Stockholm were surveyed. In both countries, males reported higher scores for usefulness, aptitude, and liking of computers, and more positive attitudes toward math and science than girls. Girls consistently reported that the subjects they liked least were computers, math and science.e*#Mandinach, Ellen B. Linn, Marcia C. 1987b\Cognitive consequences of programming: Achievements of experienced and talented programmers0)Journal of Educational Computing Research31 53-72Programming AccessTeachers and students nominated students who could write a simple program on their own. Of the 98 students nominated, 54% were male and 46% female. This group was given a programming test, which a quarter of the group passed. In this subsample, 37% were male and 63% were female: females were over-represented among the most talented. No significant gender differences were found on any of the measures of programming performance, computer access, or ability. "[G]iven the opportunity, females are especially likely to succeed in acquiring programming expertise." (p. 67) General ability was not related to programming performance.Manes, Stephen 1997(!Alice's adventures in boredomland@New York Times New York October 7SoftwareVOSoftware programs for girls are reviewed: saccharine, boring, and stereotyped.Mangione, Melissa 1995f_Understanding the critics of educational technology: Gender inequities and computers 1983-1993@9Association for Educational Communications and Technology  Anaheim, CAERIC ED 383 311tmSoftware Culture Access Use patterns Stereotypes and bias Research review Race, ethnicity, or SES MathematicsA ten-year review of research on the content and design of software with respect to gender and race and usage patterns. Gender bias occurs from the origins of computing in math and science, both male domains.i *#Stumpf, Heinrich Stanley, Julian C. 1997f`The gender gap in Advanced Placement computer science: Participation and performance, 1984-1996College Board Review 181 22-27 JulyF@Secondary/high school Enrollments Mathematics Advanced PlacementIn a study of Advanced Placement CS exams AB (since it started in 1984) and A (when it started in 1991) through 1996, it was found that the percentage of girls taking the test decreased in both exams and that males consistently outperformed females throughout. In both exams the gender difference in the scores decreased fairly steadily over the years, so that now it is smaller than before. This pattern is different from the math and science pattern where gender differences in scores tended to be rather stable over the years. "Clearly, strong efforts should be made so that computer science, which is critically important for many academic specialties and for social progress, will be more attractive to women." (p. 27)"Sturm, Deborah Moroh, Marsha 1994PIEncouraging enrollment and retention of women in computer science classes0)National Educational Computing Conference BostonERIC ED 396 688:4Interventions School programs Postsecondary/tertiaryWomen computer science students at the College of Staten Island in New York City had higher pass rates than male peers, but their enrollment and retention rates were low. Paper describes various features of a program designed to increase them: brochure of CS career benefits, tutoring workshops, seminars for potential female majors, and mentoring/role models. No outcomes are presented."Sturm, Deborah Moroh, Marsha 1995B