• crest of an immigration flood
• unrivaled technology of the phonograph
• commercial marriage of these

As much as for jobs or religious and political freedom, immigrants were drawn to America by myth (Bohlman's "Imagining the Mediterranean," in this issue of EOL). In 1900, 13.5 percent of the population of the United States was foreign born and the figure was much higher in metropolitan areas such as New York (Historical statistics of the U.S. 1975, quoted in Gronow 1982). Until assimilated, the immigrant naturally wanted to be surrounded with familiar food, newspapers, theater, and music.

In 1895, a small record company listed a handful of "Hebrew" songs in their catalog. By 1920, Victor had issued over 20,000 ethnic recordings, with Columbia rivalling that number. "In a country with strange customs and values, where other people spoke an unfamiliar language, a phonograph could and did provide a means of emotional retreat to one's homeland. Records of familiar songs reinforced traditional values and an immigrant's sense of self-worth." (Spottswood 1982). At the peak of this "Golden Age" of ethnic recordings in 1930, "folk and regional music of every description was readily and widely available on records." American-made releases were made in fifty foreign languages, from Acadian French to Welsh (ibid).

The U.S. Immigration Act of 1924 and the Great Depression of the 1930s greatly reduced the flood of immigrants (Ward 1980:492-493), so there were fewer new customers for ethnic records to replace the earlier generations assimilated into the mainstream. By 1925, radio had become a formidable competitor to records with a cheaper and higher quality music. Musicians and record companies adapted to the changing demographics by offering mainstream versions of ethnic titles, prolonging its life through World War Two. But in 1952 Victor and Columbia quit the ethnic recording business (Spottswood, ibid.). 

Yet 1950 was the year of the birth of Folkways Records, a label which continues today as Smithsonian Folkways, joined by Arhoolie, Nonesuch, Rounder, Music of the World, and other independent labels devoted to ethnic music. Cheaper technology, innovative marketing, and effective distribution made possible a renaissance of ethnic music records (Signell 1987: "Commerce," "Technology")

Richard Spottswood has catalogued more than 200,000 recordings of ethnic music recorded in the U.S. between 1893 and 1942 on U.S. Victor, Columbia, and other small and large labels. These recordings are invaluable documents of music practice and immigrant preferences of that period. 

From this vast ocean of ethnic recordings, I was able to find in many cases examples which related to my own late-twentieth century field recordings and to music selected by my fellow authors in this issue of EOL. The historical recordings, except for the 1893 cylinder recordings, and pictures below are from the personal collection of Richard Spottswood. The discography shows which are available on re-issued compact disc. Disclosure links to the relevant paragraph in my Tales article in this issue of EOL follow each of the ethnic subheadings below.

Only the strictist religionists (Jewish, Muslim, Christian, or others) dispute Shiloah's observation that "artistic effects in some examples make music an elevating factor of the religious experience." American record companies sold recordings of Jewish religious music and Jewish immigrants in America bought them.

 
long version RealAudio 

Ov horachim, sung by Pierre Pinchik, voice & organ was recorded in Chicago, 26 June 1928 (Audio 18).

Disclosure: Jewish selection, immersion, recording

Spottswood lists more than 2,000 Greek recordings from a variety of genres.

The great Greek singing artist of the early twentieth century in America, Marika Papagika, was born in the Greek island of Kos, near Turkey. Her musical style has much in common with Turkish style, as do the styles of rebetika and tabachaniotika of the Greek island of Crete, described by Magrini in this issue of EOL. Leaving aside the partisan question of whose ancestors invented a musical system or a performance style, an observer can equally respect music performed by citizens of twentieth century Greece and twentieth century Turkey.

In Papagika's performance, the listener can hear a virtuoso vocal ornamentation style common to both cultures, full of coloratura-like roulades; and melodic modes, called dromoi (sing., dromos) in Greek and makam in Turkish. Detailed analysis of performances such as Papagika's will show to what extent they are related to makam practise of Turkish court music.

Compare Greek-Turkish genres in Magrini article ("The Rebetika," and "The Tabachaniotika.")

long version, RealAudio 

disclosure:Greek 78 selections, immersion, recording

Spottswood lists about 1,000 recordings from South Slavs, ethnic groups of what we now call "former Yugoslavia": Serb, Croat, Macedonian, etc. In the commercial world of record labels and catalogs, ethnic designations can be deliberately concealed for marketing purposes (Spottswood 1982:56).

 

 
Audio 25
tamburica
490K au

Disclosure: South Slav 78 selections, immersion, recordings

Spottswood lists about 220 recordings of Turkish music music, including classical Ottoman music, folk music, and the first known recording of Mediterranean music in the U.S. (1893). 

Disclosure: selection, immersion, recording

Spottswood lists about 7,000 Italian recordings, including many Neapolitan songs. One can also find recordings of other genres, such as street vendor cries, serenades, Christmas piping, and Sicilian tarantellas.. 

Disclosure: selection, immersion, recording